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BIOL1007 > MODULE 4 > Flashcards

MODULE 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Queensland hotspot for for tree clearing

A

2/3 the annual rate of deforestation in the Brazillian Amazon.

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2
Q

australia’s ecosystem…

A

In a poor states and is deteriorating.

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3
Q

____ contributes most to environmental assests

A

Land

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4
Q

System of Environmental-Economic Accounting framework

A

an internationally agreed approach for producing comparable statistics on the environment and its relationship to the economy

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5
Q

Value of long-term studies:

A
  • document the changes
  • identify the drivers of change
  • provide the evidence and knowledge needed to inform better natural resource management
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6
Q

At least ____ Australian ecosystems have been reported to show signs of collapse or near collapse, although none has yet collapsed across the entire distribution

A

19

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7
Q

Behaviour

A

part of how organisms respond to the biotic & abiotic environment

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8
Q

Fitness

A

an individual’s relative contribution to the next generation’s gene pool

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9
Q

does foraging on high quality food provide a fitness advantage?

A

feeding on high quality food increases reproductive output

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10
Q

Behaviour is ecologically significant because it:

A
  • is a link between individuals & their environment
  • affects demographics (population levels outcomes)
  • affects interactions among species (community-level outcomes)
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11
Q

Behaviour is evolutionarily significant because it:

A
  • has some genetic basis (think nature vs. nurture)
  • affects fitness
  • can be selected (benefits > costs)
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12
Q

Behaviour: 3 key aspects

A
  1. Obtain food
  2. Avoid becoming food
  3. Reproduce
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13
Q

1.Obtain food

A
  • Foraging
  • Ambush (camo)
  • Active (agile/fast)
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14
Q

Optimal foraging theory

A

modelled which food items to eat in a non-depleting environment
* predicts foragers should maximise net rate of food (= energy) intake

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15
Q

Marginal value theorem

A

modelled when to leave a food patch in a depleting environment
* predicts that foragers should leave food patches when capture/harvest rate at patch < average capture/harvest rate

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16
Q

2.Avoid becoming food

A
  • Run away
  • Group
  • Hide
  • Act or be costly
  • Feed in safe places/times
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17
Q

Costs to anti-predator strategies

A
  • Feeding near vegetation cover (missed opportunities to forage elsewhere)
  • Grouping (competition for food, social aggression)
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18
Q

Behaviour - Reproduce

A
  • Courtship & mating behaviour: non-random
  • Parental care
  • Increased survival & growth of offspring = fitness
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19
Q

Sexual selection types

A
  1. intrasexual selection competition (often ♂-♂) sexual dimorphism (e.g. hefty vs. slight, larger than females)
  2. intersexual selection mate choice (often by ♀) sexual dimorphism (e.g. flashy vs. plain)
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20
Q

Plant behaviour

A
  • Leaves/stem grow towards light
  • Roots grow along chem gradients
  • Different time frame/ way of moving
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21
Q

Groups

A

Multiple organisms of same or different species occupying a common space
* Ephemeral or consistent
* Can be social, indirect, or accidental

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22
Q

Population

A

A number of organisms of the same species in a defined geographical area

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23
Q

Properties of populations include

A
  1. number of individuals or population size
  2. area they occupy
  3. age structure
  4. sex ratio
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24
Q

Importance of population biology

A
  • Understand temporal dynamics
  • Spatial distribution
  • Natural selection
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25
Q

Rate (r) =

A

change / unit of time

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26
Q

Variables that drive changes in population size:

A
  • Birth & Death
  • Emigration (number leaving population) & Immigration (number entering population)
  • Growth (individual)
  • Age at maturity
  • Sex ratio
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27
Q

Population growth in “closed” systems

A

No em/immigration
* Nt+1 = Nt + Births - Deaths

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28
Q

Exponential growth

A

Geometric
* population’s per capita growth remains the same irrespective of pop size; thus populations grow faster as they get bigger

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29
Q

Discrete pop. growth

A

Saw tooth shape
* reproduction occurs periodically

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30
Q

Continuous pop. growth

A

Curved line
* reproduction occurs year-round

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31
Q

Logistic curve

A
  • Growth exponential at low numbers
  • Growth slows at higher numbers
  • Growth stops at carrying capacity (K)
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32
Q

Estimating birth rates

A
  • Histology of reproductive organs
  • Capture/counting of fertilised gametes
  • Counting of newly born individuals
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33
Q

Estimating death rates (mortality)

A
  • Tagging
  • Follow individuals (for sessile organisms)
  • Probability based (for more motile organisms)
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34
Q

Population growth in “open” systems

A

Nt+1 = Nt + Births – Deaths + immigrants - emigrants

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35
Q

Mark-release-recapture (MRR)

A

no. marked/ pop. size = no. recaptures marked/ no. recaptures total

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36
Q

Metapopulations

A
  • Local populations, but individuals move
  • Demographic rates vary spatially
  • Large-scale dynamics dependent on local demographics and connectivity
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37
Q

Population viability analysis (PVA) factors

A
  • Population Size/Carrying Capacity (K)
  • Fecundity
  • Mortality: Adults and juveniles
  • Inter-annual variation in parameters
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38
Q

Factors that contribute to extinction

A
  • Genetic stochasticity (small populations)
  • Demographic stochasticity (random nature of births and deaths)
  • Environmental stochasticity (variability)
  • Catastrophes
  • Human impacts
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39
Q

what is PVA used for

A

determine the long-term vulnerability of a species to extinction under a variety of scenarios

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40
Q

Biological species concept:

A

Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups

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41
Q

Problems with species concept

A
  • Hybridise
  • Asexual?
  • Fossil taxa
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42
Q

Do species really matter?

A
  • Labelling
  • History
  • Conservation
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43
Q

Species richness

A

= number of species in a sample (S)
* vary with sample size

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44
Q

Species diversity

A

No. of species and no. of individuals in each species

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45
Q

Alpha (or α) diversity

A

No. of species within a particular areas or habitats
* Local

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46
Q

Beta (β) diversity

A

The difference in species between areas or habitats
* Comparing

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47
Q

Gamma (or γ) diversity

A

No. of species from all areas or habitats combined
* Regional

48
Q

How many species are there: world?

A

1.5 – 1.82 million
* More that aren’t named/discovered
* Est. ~2.238 billion
* Bacteria

49
Q

Autotrophs

A

Producers
* Synthesis organic from inorganic (CO2 etc.)

50
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Consumers, degraders, decomposers
* Depend on autotrophs
* Animals

51
Q

Food chains are usually…

A

Short
* Energy hypothesis
* Dynamic stability hypothesis

52
Q

Energy hypothesis

A

There is energy loss between trophic levels
* high productivity ecosystems have longer chains

53
Q

Dynamic stability hypothesis

A

Longer food chains less stable because fluctuations at low trophic levels magnify at high levels
* Predictable (stable) environments should have longer chains

54
Q

Competition

A

(-/-)

55
Q

Predation

A

(+/-)

56
Q

Parasitism

A

(+/-)

57
Q

Herbivory

A

(+/-)

58
Q

Mutualisms

A

(+/+)

59
Q

Commensalism

A

(+/0)

60
Q

Amensalism

A

(0/-)

61
Q

Obligate mutualism

A

Symbiosis: partners can only survive together
* Lichens: fungus and algae

62
Q

Facultative mutualism

A

Partners gain benefit from associating, but can survive on their own
* Caterpillar protected by ants and ants feed of sugary secretions

63
Q

Communities

A

Two or (usually) more species that occur together in space and time
* Interact with each other as an ecological unit

64
Q

Assemblages

A

A group of taxonomically related species living in the same place

65
Q

Succession

A

When an ecosystem develops through distinct stages from an empty or highly disturbed condition

66
Q

Primary succession

A

Bare area without soil
e.g. sand-dune, bare rock, mining site

67
Q

Secondary succession

A

In a habitat modified by other species
e.g. forest gaps, abandoned agricultural fields

68
Q

Facilitation

A

Early arriving species make environment more favourable for later species
* Fixing nitrogen, retain water in soil etc.

69
Q

Tolerance

A

neither negative nor positive interactions between early and late species

70
Q

Inhibition

A

early species inhibit later species

71
Q

____ is a driver of species richness and community composition

A

Disturbance

72
Q

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

A

Patchy mosaic of disturbance creates highest diversity

73
Q

Resilience

A

how long before a community returns to an “equilibrium” after disturbance?

74
Q

Ecosystems

A

The community of living organisms considered in conjunction with the abiotic components of their environment, interacting as a system

75
Q

The water cycle

A

Processes of convection, precipitation, transpiration and respiration move water around the cycle

76
Q

Nitrogen cycle

A

Plants cannot absorb atmospheric N
Absorbed as ammonium/nitrate after fixation of nitrogen by symbiotic bacteria/soil
N becomes limiting if microbial activity is inhibited

77
Q

The carbon cycle

A

Most carbon is locked up in earth’s rocks as carbonate (fossil fuels)
Most active pool is CO2, 0.04 per cent of the atmosphere ++
CO2 is used in photosynthesis, released during respiration
Large amounts CO2 dissolved in ocean

78
Q

Sea otters

A

Eat sea urchins which feast on kelp
* Kelp forest = C storage
* W/o otters, poor storage of C

79
Q

Phosphorus cycle

A

Local
* Taken up by plants as phosphate from sparingly soluble soil storage pool

80
Q

Australian enviro conditions

A

2/3 desert
Soils low in N & P
Variable rainfall
* Pulse & reserve

81
Q

Silent Spring - Rachel Carson (1962)

A

Warned of synthetic chemicals accumulating in mammals and birds
* Raptors
* Bioaccumulation
* Pesticides

82
Q

Bioaccumulation

A

Occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost
* Occurs in body tissues
* Higher predators at the top of food chains/webs

83
Q

Toxins introduced in 40s-50s

A

Herbicides, pesticides, PCBs, heavy metals.

84
Q

Inuit & PCB

A

PCB found in breast milk of mothers
* contaminated fish
* eat the tissue
* chem transported long distances

85
Q

Fractionation

A

Chemicals evaporate from soils and carried by winds.

86
Q

Distillation

A

Chemicals from fractionation condense in the cold
* Toxic snow and rain

87
Q

Bioaccumulation: effects on growth and development

A
  • Long-term tissue effects
  • Lethal in many species
  • Effects on developmental problems
88
Q

Oil impacts on coastal communities

A

Clean-up can be as damaging as the oil itself
* Strong pervasive biological interactions in rocky intertidal and kelp forest communities contribute to cascades of delayed, indirect impacts and expand damages, delay recoveries

89
Q

Biomass collapse

A

Fragmented landscape
* Land clearing
* Burning
* Decline in above-ground biomass after

90
Q

Ecological meltdown

A

Mostly large animals and predators lost
* Hyperabundancy of small animals
* Plants cannot keep up with demands.

91
Q

Climate change impact on plants and animals

A
  • Range shifts (latitudinal/altitudinal)
  • Abundance changes
  • Change in growing season length
  • Earlier flowering, emergence of insects, migration and egg-laying in birds
  • Morphology shifts
92
Q

Climate change impact on hydrology and glaciers

A
  • Shrinkage
  • Permafrost thawing
  • Later freeze & earlier break up of river/lake ice
93
Q

Effects of loss of ice

A

Species favouring ice-dominated systems with shallow benthic communities will diminish and be replaced by systems dominated by pelagic fish

94
Q

Pollutants…

A
  • Lead to fitness declines in species (accumulation)
  • Are mobile, can’t be easily managed at the local level
95
Q

Australia’s recent mammal extinctions

A
  • Lost ~34 species in 200 yrs
  • Critical weight range = 5.5-35kg
96
Q

Aims of Conservation Biology

A
  1. To describe problems and understand processes
  2. To predict impacts of threats
  3. To develop solutions: undo the ‘human footprint’
  4. Ultimately: stop more species/communities/ecological processes going extinct
97
Q

Jared Diamond’s “Evil Quartet” of extinction forces

A
  1. Alien species
  2. Over-hunting
  3. Habitat loss
  4. Co-extinction
98
Q

Edward O. Wilson’s “HIPPO” of extinction forces

A
  1. Habitat destruction
  2. Invasive species
  3. Pollution
  4. Human over-population
  5. Over-harvesting
99
Q

Key diff. between Evil Quartet and HIPPO

A

HIPPO included human over-population, underpins everything else.

100
Q

Alien species NZ & AUS

A
  • NZ more alien than native
  • Aus 56 introduced species of vertebrates
101
Q

Our new Megafauna

A

New invaders brought new megafauna
* 200-100 years ago with Europeans
* Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, buffalo, donkeys, deer, horses, and camels are now all feral
* Many are major pests

102
Q
A
102
Q

Our new “Microfauna”

A
  • Cats, rats, mice arrive with early explorers
  • Rabbits, hare, foxes, cane toads and others released
    • bees, wasps, new plants (e.g., blackberry, lantana, gorse, buffel), ants and much, much more
103
Q

Invasion

A

1.Deliberate introductions
2.Human traffic
3.Native invaders
4.Success rates for invaders

104
Q

“Tens rule”

A
  • 1 in 10 of the plant and animal species brought into a region will escape to appear in the wild
  • 1 in 10 of those escaped species will become naturalised
  • 1 in 10 of these will become invasive
105
Q

Invasive species tend to have characteristics that :

A
  1. maximize or enable high reproduction
  2. enable great ecological dispersal
  3. enable species to be greatly ecologically flexible
  4. cf. traits of pioneer species in succession
106
Q

Overhunting

A
  • Bounties
  • Fisheries
  • Bushmeat
  • Over exploitation risks higher in data-deficient systems
107
Q

Habitat loss and the extinction debt

A

Habitat destruction major cause of species extinction
* Extinction debt reflects the future ecological cost of current habitat destruction

108
Q

Co-extinction

A

Critical ecosystem functions lost when species are lost
* Cascade

109
Q

Solutions to extinction: Experiments

A

Key to identifying processes driving extinction and allowing management and future predictions.
* Predation experiments (removal/supplementation)
* Meta-analyses – towards a general pattern across experiments and studies

110
Q

Operation Western Shield

A
  • 1080 poison used
  • Brush-tailed bettongs removed from endangered list, numbats, rock-wallabies, possums, bandicoots and chuditch also more common
  • Successful mammal conservation program
111
Q

Modelling

A

Useful to predict impacts and to identify management options (PVA)
* Comparing management options
* Minimum viable population (MVP) size
* Data hungry process, but very helpful and effective

112
Q

Legislations

A
  • Federal listing
  • Provides recovery plans
  • Identify critical habitats
  • List threatening processes
113
Q

Ecological restoration

A

Process of repairing damage caused by humans to the diversity and dynamics of indigenous ecosystems
* Restoring ecosystems to some pre-impact or reference state
* Enhancing habitat quality
* Restoring ecosystem functions via reintroductions

114
Q

Succession of plant species

A

Follows a pattern of pioneer species occupying an area which was disturbed
* Consist of annual plants and these are replaced by perennial plants and grasses, shrubs and then trees as the community moves toward being comprised of climax species.

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