Module 3 - The Individual In Society Flashcards
Culture:
Culture is socially transmitted social practices and knowledge systems that enable humans to adapt to and thrive in a given environment.
How can culture be viewed as an all-pervasive way of life?
The viewpoint suggests there is a shared set of taken-for-granted understandings which are unitary and internally consistent.
How can culture be viewed as a toolkit?
This viewpoint was coined by Ann Swidler in her book ‘Culture in Action.’ It believes culture is dynamic, contextual, and heterogeneous and conflicted (internally and externally).
What are the two origins of inequality?
Nature and biology & society and social relations.
The Conservative View:
Individualistic, inequality results from natural differences and personal merit, inequality is inevitable (or even good), people should have choice (e.g., private healthcare, private education, gated communities), and the free market plus private charity can take care of everything.
The Socialist View:
Collectivist, inequality is not natural and results from unfair social conditions/policies, inequality is unjust and preventable and redistributive politics will eradicate or lessen inequality
(e.g., taxation, public programs for healthcare, education, etc.).
Class Inequality:
Unequal distribution of wealth and income in society leads to the stratification of people into various classes. E.g., upper class, middle class, lower/working class.
Status:
Prestige, honour, and respect are associated with factors such as age, birth, rank, knowledge, wisdom, etc.
Socioeconomic Status:
A composite measure of a person’s social standing based on a combination of income, education, and occupational prestige rankings.
Pierre Bourdieu:
Bourdieu argued that inequalities result from the unequal distribution of capital in society. But capital is not just economic; it can be cultural, social and symbolic. He also had ideas about the types of capital.
Economic: income, inheritance, wealth, possessions
Cultural: intangible assets such as skills, taste, know-how, diplomas and degrees, and etiquette which determine one to be “higher up” on the cultural ladder. There are three types.
- Institutional: education, certificates, skills, know-how,
- Embodied: accent, tastes, etiquette, comportment
- Objectified: personal library, art collection, wine collection, music record collection
Social: networks, relations, friends in high places, exclusive clubs
Symbolic: recognition you get in society for what you have and who you are
Income:
Wages, pensions, spousal/child support, welfare payments, investment income, EI, rent, interest, sale, profits, etc.
Wealth/Net Worth:
Total assets less total liabilities. E.g., real estate, stocks and bonds, gold, cars, investments, companies, etc.
Low Income:
Defined by how much of your income you have to spend on food, shelter and clothing as compared to the average family.
What are the characteristics of the top earning Canadians?
The top 1% is predominantly made up of white, middle-aged, married men. These individuals typically live in big cities and hold degrees. They predominantly work in medicine, dentistry, law, engineering, business and finance, and management.
What are the characteristics of the lowest earning Canadians?
Single parents, off-reserve Aboriginal people, people without families between the ages of 45-64, people with work-limiting disabilities, and recent immigrants.
The Gini Coefficient:
A measure of the inequality of a statistical dispersion that can range between 0 - if whatever is being measured is equally distributed among all members of a population (i.e. total equality) - and 1 - if a single individual holds all of whatever is being measured (i.e. maximum inequality). Between 1985 to 2013, the Gini Coefficient went up for all OECD countries. This means that the gap between the rich and the rest of the population increased.
How did Cooley, Mead, and Goffman view the self in regards to social identity?
They focussed on viewing the self as a product of social interaction vs innate. They focussed on individual self-development within the group.
How did Henry Tajfel and John Turner view the self in regards to social identity?
They came up with the social identity theory, which explores how group identity emerges and why individuals often favour their in-groups over out-groups.
What are the key concepts of Social Identity Theory?
- Social Categorization: According to Tajfel and Turner, people categorize themselves and others into groups to make sense of a complex social world. This categorization simplifies social information as people begin to view others as in-group (“us”) and out-group (“them”).
- Social Identification: Once individuals categorize themselves as part of a group, they begin to identify with it, deriving part of their self-esteem and identity from group membership. This identification strengthens the emotional attachment to the group and encourages individuals to adopt the associated norms, values, and behaviours.
- Social Comparison: With group identification comes the tendency to compare one’s in-group to relevant out-groups. These comparisons are often biased in favour of the in-group, where individuals tend to emphasize the positive characteristics of their group and view out-groups less favourably.
- Positive Distinctiveness: Tajfel and Turner propose that individuals seek to achieve a positive social identity by emphasizing their in-group’s distinct and superior characteristics. This drive for “positive distinctiveness” can lead to intergroup conflict when groups compete for social or economic resources, recognition, or dominance.
What are the implications of the social identity theory?
Social identity is rooted in universal and fundamental desires. These desires lead to both solidarity and conflict.
What are the shortcomings of the social identity theory?
It neglects the role of power dynamics (one group often holds more power and access to resources, which fundamentally alters their dynamics), inequality (people make categories, but they don’t do it on an equal footing. Some groups are more privileged, to begin with, and have more respect and power already), and social and historical contexts (Intergroup conflicts are often driven by historical grievances and structural inequalities, not merely the psychological need for in-group distinctiveness.
How did Anderson describe his idea of imagined communities?
He focuses on nations and national identity. The imagination of closeness does not rely on proximity or kinship. It is influenced by the role of media (print, TV, social, etc.), narratives, symbols, inclusion & exclusion (us vs. them), and fluidity.
How did Anthony Giddens view modernity and self-identity?
In traditional societies, self-identity stems from the community and is largely fixed by culture and traditions. It is closely linked to social identity and influenced by communal values and narratives that offer ontological security. In modern societies, the self becomes reflexive, marked by diverse narratives, fluid identities, and a loss of certainty. This leads to new communities and social identities characterized by ontological insecurity and existential anxiety.
Intersectionality:
Rooted in black feminism, this idea stated that neither race nor gender can be understood independently - instead, they intersect. Forms of oppression intersect and compound, creating a distinct form of oppression particular to that intersection. In more recent developments, it is believed that class plays a role, too.
What is the history behind identity politics?
In 1977, a collective of black feminist activists coined the idea that marginalized people experience inequalities differently, so racial, gendered, and sexual prejudice intensify the experience of economic inequality, posing a need for a new form of social movement and political mobilization that rooted in one’s identity (identity politics).
How are identity politics used today?
A way to mobilize and advocate for people experiencing marginalization due to race, ethnicity, sexuality, gender, religion, etc. It is most notably connected with racial and 2SLGBTQA+ identity today. This can be used as a political tool for politicians to garner support from specific identity groups. In the U.S. the Democratic Party has often tried to garner support from communities defined by their racial, ethnic, gender, or sexual identity. In comparison, the Republican Party criticizes identity politics but actually engages in its own form of identity politics.
Identity Economics:
Commercialization of group identity.
What did Nancy Fraser fail to recognize in regards to the sociological perspective?
She neglected class inequality and exploitation in her intersectionality debate.
What did Wendy Brown fail to recognize in regards to the sociological perspective?
She failed to see identity politics as a double-edged sword as it helps people mobilize and fix their identity. Identities rooted in historical injustices and victimhood can constrain people’s political agency.
Wounded Attachments:
By defining themselves through their injuries and victimhood, people remain bound to those injuries as a source of identity. This leads to dependency on the very systems or groups that caused the harm. They seek retribution or recognition from the system rather than looking for a future-oriented change.
The sociology of gender:
Research on gender falls on a continuum: On one end, people argue that gender is biological and is created because of the action of male or female sex hormones on the brain before birth. On the other end of the continuum, people argue that gender is socially constructed through the socialization of children into gender roles. In the middle, emerging evidence shows that biological and social factors impact one another. Hormones affect the brain, but the brain has “plasticity,” and it continues to be shaped by the social environment after birth.
Sex:
Distinction separating male from female based on socially agreed-upon biological differences (e.g., anatomy).
Sex Category:
External and visible signs by which we categorize people into different sexes category.
Gender:
Attitudes and behaviours we associate with masculinity and femininity, non-binary, etc.
Gender as Performative:
Esther Newton (1972) saw gender performance among homosexuals and drag queens. She thought this performance was conscious and deliberate. Judith Butler (1999) explored this performativity and how sex (biological) vs. gender (socially constructed), repeated enactment of norms, language, behaviour, and institutions create the illusion of a stable and natural gender binary. Butler argues that there is no actual “gender,” but rather, what’s real is the production of gender.
Selling Gender:
Gender differences are often reinforced to benefit certain groups. Institutions like the military and sports, as well as businesses such as the beauty industry, 4x4 manufacturers, and tobacco companies, profit from these differences.
Deviance:
Any action, human condition, or belief that violates the norms of a society or social group in which it occurs and for which the violator is likely to be censured or punished. Deviant status may not just be attributed to individuals but to entire groups—for example, LGBT in Russia, Muslims in the USA today, and homeless people in Canada.
Crime:
Any action violating societal criminal laws and punishable by fines or jail time.
The Social Construction of Deviance and Crime:
The idea that deviance and crime is socially and historically relative, as well as context dependent.
Crimes against the person:
Unlawful acts that involve the use, or threatened use, of violence against another person.
Crimes against property:
Unlawful acts to obtain property that do not involve the use or
threatened use of violence against another person.
Durkheim’s Social Constructionist View on Crime:
We must not say that an action shocks the conscience collective because it is criminal, but rather that it is criminal because it shocks the conscience collective. Crime can actually be good (functional) for society.
Marxism’s Conflict Theory:
Laws reflect the interests of the dominant classes. Crime is often defined in ways that benefits the rich and powerful. E.g. property crimes. Even notions such as equality, property rights, and justice serve the powerful. The law is not equally enforced against the poor and the rich. The law criminalizes things that threaten the status of the powerful. Alternatively, harm is a much better concept than crime.
Why did Robert Merton believe people commit crime?
His strain theory believes it can be attributed to a lack of balance between cultural goals and access to the means to achieve them. If there are goals that society is pushing you to attain, but society doesn’t give you the institutional means to achieve them, this causes strain.
Labelling Theory:
A behaviour, belief, action, or characteristic is considered deviant because the group members label it as such. Therefore, no behaviour is deviant in and of itself - the social audience defines it this way. People are described as criminals by the group. The person sees that reflection (looking-glass self) and internalizes it.
Why did Edwin Sutherland believe people commit crime?
The actions of criminals were learned deviant behaviours that were shaped by others with whom they associate (within primary groups such as family and peers). But mere interaction with individuals who were already criminal would not inevitably lead to criminal behaviour.
Why is it believed that a lack of social bonds leads people to commit crimes?
Delinquent behaviour can best be explained by the absence of social bonds, which include attachment, belief, commitment, and involvement. Lack of self-control contributes to deviant behaviour. When individuals with low self-control have opportunities for crime, they commit it. For example, low self-control and lack of bonds lead to hacking among teenagers.
What are the categories of criminals?
Violent, petty, and white collar.
Explain how victims become criminals:
According to research carried out at the U of A, over 95% of the prison population in Alberta has experienced at least one form of victimization (violent, property, sexual).
What are white collar and corporate crimes?
Any conduct of a corporation, or of its representatives/employees acting on the corporation’s behalf, that is a criminal, a civil, or an administrative violation. Corporate crimes can range from polluting the environment to committing financial fraud, engaging in price fixing, creating hazardous working conditions, or producing and selling unsafe products.
Crime and victimization are affected by:
Age, gender, ethnicity, and regional location.
What is biological death?
Culturally defined biological criteria (e.g., no breath). Sometimes combined with non-biological criteria (e.g., stages of death).
What was modern medicine’s definition of death?
It was originally defined as cardiovascular death. Complications occurred with the invention of CPR and resuscitation techniques leading scientists to change the definition to death of the brain.
What did Ernest Becker’s ‘The Denial of Death’ (1973) believe?
It was a psychological theory, influenced by Freud, which states that the unconscious does not know time, death, or the struggle for self-esteem. Individuals believe in worldly immortality through heroism, leaving a legacy, inheritance, and offspring. Therefore, human culture is a hero system.
What are the three main ideas around death?
Denial, fate, and preventable contingency.
How did attitudes on death as fate shift towards death as risk?
John Graunt (1620-1674) observed on the London Bills of Mortality (1662) which coagulated death statistics and the biggest killers. This helped individuals overcome biblical fears using commercial methods.
Explain the acceptance attitude of death?
Throughout history many people have simply accepted or even welcomed their own death. In recent years, several movements have advocated against extraordinary medical interventions at the end of life and even argued in favour of hastening death.
Explain the social management that has to do with the dying process:
Like every event in life, the dying process is influenced by power and inequality, gender relations, economic inequality, stigma and marginalization. Access to care during the dying process is influenced by:
• Economic capital
• Cultural capital
• Social capital
• Symbolic capital (stigma/prestige)
• Gender plays a role in the distribution of the burden of care.
Explain the social management of a corpse:
Human cultures have long developed ways of dealing with the corpse (disposal), including burial, cremation, and sky burials.
The sociology of what to do with dead bodies:
To be part of a community means to have the right to live and die in it. For most of human history and in many societies, the care of dead bodies has been a collective undertaking. Sociology is interested in how social values, hierarchies, inequalities, and
power relations influence our cultural practices around the corpse.
The social management pertaining to the professionalization of disposal of bodies.
In modern societies, many aspects of life (and death) have become professionalized. Care and disposal of the body has become a ‘service’ provided by paid ‘professionals’, including coroners, funeral home directories, and cemetery workers.
What political issues are prevalent with dead bodies?
Desecration, display of elaborate possessions, disappearance and confiscation of corpses.
How has media taken death and popularized it as pop culture?
Because of the taboo associated with death, it is interesting, and provides captivating forensic tv shows and movies, celebrity death announcements, popular burial sights, and forensic fascination.
What are the social inequalities associated with death?
Mortality rates are higher among lower classes. Our moral values around life and death are not consistent when applied to different populations. Disenfranchised grief: When people ‘incur a loss that is not or cannot be openly acknowledged, publicly mourned or socially supported’.
Explain the study and production of culture:
Many sociologists study the culture industry in terms of expressive culture like art, entertainment, media, dance, theatre, and movies, and their production, distribution, and preservation of culture. There are studies on how music artists become famous, why certain music genres become popular, how Ticketmaster became dominant, etc.
Hybrid Culture:
One of the things with creative culture is that there is a give and take between various countries and societies. For example, language has moved from one place to another and can find its origins in a certain place and spread over time. This is how we get hybrid cultural production.
Cultural Appropriation:
The belief that some social exchanges are heavily influenced by power, with some groups using their power over others to not only take their land, resources, and labor, but also their sacred cultural objects, clothes, ways of speaking, etc.
The Human Embodiment of Culture:
The idea that culture gets inscribed in our bodies through mediums like cleansing, elimination of bodily wastes, eating, birth, sex life, and death.
How do different cultures understand death differently?
In different cultures, there may be different conventions as to if someone is considered to be dead or alive, both legally and medically. Some cultures have stages of death, where burial indicates absolute death.
How did memory change over the progression of human history?
We’re not necessarily losing our memory, but our memory use is changing. When print was invented, you no longer had to memorize anything since everything could be printed. Pre-print knowledge was the memorization of a literary canon. You showed you knew a lot if you could recite a lot. Post-print knowledge is a critical reflection on a variety of texts. Compiling many knowledge sources and generating analysis out of them shows intelligence.
How is using the Internet changing our brains?
The Internet is training our brains to handle information differently- It makes us better at multitasking. Our memory capacity isn’t necessarily shrinking, but we are learning to offset our memories onto the internet. We think we are freeing up our minds (we believe that our brains have a limited capacity for memories) for more important things, but in reality, we are relying on a tool to remember for us, and our brains are learning to move from one fact to another quicker rather than retaining the information we use. Short term memory overload is really affecting us, you are constantly swapping things into short term memory, the more you bounce around things online, you become easily distracted. Short term memories are no longer processed into long term memories, instead they are put online. So, we are getting better at organizing but not at deep thinking.
What was the origin of inequality from a natural and biological view?
We are born unequally. Some people are naturally stronger or weaker and have different talents. If we look at human history, there has been a conflict over limited resources. In Western philosophy, Hobbes sought the origin of inequality. The argument is that these inequalities will always exist.
What was the origin of inequality from a social and societal point of view?
Inequality originates from power, what we value in society, and the distribution of resources. Historically, men have more access to wealth because their work is valued and paid. This is not natural or biological but a result of our social relations, so it can be changed.
The precariat:
A new class has emerged in recent years: the precariat, or people with unstable income and employment. In the past, when people had jobs, they were stable/secure and had pensions and benefits. These jobs have pretty much disappeared, while more jobs have become precarious. Temp agencies have grown, and temporary, part-time jobs are now the norm. All this wealth that used to be paid to workers (in good salaries and benefits) has accumulated at the top, leaving low-income and poverty at the bottom.
What are the consequences of inequality?
Position in class structure affects belief systems, behaviours, voting patterns, lifestyles, and life chances (health, lifespan, education, criminality). Unequal societies tend to be more unsafe. Precarity leads to taking risks to make ends meet, including committing crimes. Inequality erodes social solidarity and cohesion. Living in a society means a sense of belonging, and inequality results in social unrest and increased crime.
How do poor countries aid rich countries?
Poor countries send trillions of dollars more to the West than vice versa. The global flow of wealth goes from poor to rich countries (legally and through money laundering). Poor countries had (and continue to have) many of their resources stolen by Western European countries - people (enslavement, forced adoptions), mining and resources, food and farming and spices, reduced-cost labour, etc.
Ecological Inequality:
Existing forms of social stratification greatly impact the experience of socio-ecological events. Developing countries, for example, are 80 times more likely to be affected by weather-related natural disasters despite contributing the least to the crisis.
Which theories of deviance and crime could explain the affluenza video?
Labelling theory: use of a label to get out of criminal charges, where others will be labelled differently for the same crime. Conflict theory: the rich and the poor are not equal before the law - the law is used to serve the rich
Which theories of deviance and crime could explain the marshmallow video?
Differential association: The caregivers’ job is to cultivate self-control when children are young.
Which theories of deviance and crime could explain the getting rich fast video ft. Elizabeth Holmes?
Strain theory: They wanted these culturally approved goals (money) but didn’t have the patience to achieve them in institutionally approved ways. They wanted success quickly, and school took too long. They are innovators.
How does prison’s history relate to capitalism?
Prisons were the sites and models for factory workers, similar to workhouses in early modern Europe. This created a powerless, well-disciplined population with ready-made labour, and you had every right to punish them for going out of line.
Transformative Justice:
It works in some contexts, but there is not enough evidence to say it can serve as an alternative for prisons. Transformative justice focuses on context, interdependence, healing, and accountability. It goes beyond the victim/perpetrator dichotomy and considers how perpetrators are sometimes victims.
Abolitionism:
The abolitionist movement wants to see the prison system abolished. Their argument is not to let people get away with anything and to get rid of accountability but that we need to transition away from prisons as the primary way of dealing with crime and harm. They tend to advocate for better-funded social safety nets, accountability systems for domestic violence, better schools, and community investments, as well as better rehabilitation and transformative programs. These programs restore the broken relationships between people when one person commits a crime.
What did George Simmell believe regarding death?
Death is a process (not an event) that starts at the moment we are born. Every living thing is on a journey from life to death.
What are the potential differences between humans and animals regarding awareness of death?
All creatures understand mortality and harm prevention. However, humans uniquely comprehend death’s finality; our existence will eventually cease. While many animals instinctively flee from danger, humans face a deeper existential dilemma regarding death.
