Module 3 - The Individual In Society Flashcards
Culture:
Culture is socially transmitted social practices and knowledge systems that enable humans to adapt to and thrive in a given environment.
How can culture be viewed as an all-pervasive way of life?
The viewpoint suggests there is a shared set of taken-for-granted understandings which are unitary and internally consistent.
How can culture be viewed as a toolkit?
This viewpoint was coined by Ann Swidler in her book ‘Culture in Action.’ It believes culture is dynamic, contextual, and heterogeneous and conflicted (internally and externally).
What are the two origins of inequality?
Nature and biology & society and social relations.
The Conservative View:
Individualistic, inequality results from natural differences and personal merit, inequality is inevitable (or even good), people should have choice (e.g., private healthcare, private education, gated communities), and the free market plus private charity can take care of everything.
The Socialist View:
Collectivist, inequality is not natural and results from unfair social conditions/policies, inequality is unjust and preventable and redistributive politics will eradicate or lessen inequality
(e.g., taxation, public programs for healthcare, education, etc.).
Class Inequality:
Unequal distribution of wealth and income in society leads to the stratification of people into various classes. E.g., upper class, middle class, lower/working class.
Status:
Prestige, honour, and respect are associated with factors such as age, birth, rank, knowledge, wisdom, etc.
Socioeconomic Status:
A composite measure of a person’s social standing based on a combination of income, education, and occupational prestige rankings.
Pierre Bourdieu:
Bourdieu argued that inequalities result from the unequal distribution of capital in society. But capital is not just economic; it can be cultural, social and symbolic. He also had ideas about the types of capital.
Economic: income, inheritance, wealth, possessions
Cultural: intangible assets such as skills, taste, know-how, diplomas and degrees, and etiquette which determine one to be “higher up” on the cultural ladder. There are three types.
- Institutional: education, certificates, skills, know-how,
- Embodied: accent, tastes, etiquette, comportment
- Objectified: personal library, art collection, wine collection, music record collection
Social: networks, relations, friends in high places, exclusive clubs
Symbolic: recognition you get in society for what you have and who you are
Income:
Wages, pensions, spousal/child support, welfare payments, investment income, EI, rent, interest, sale, profits, etc.
Wealth/Net Worth:
Total assets less total liabilities. E.g., real estate, stocks and bonds, gold, cars, investments, companies, etc.
Low Income:
Defined by how much of your income you have to spend on food, shelter and clothing as compared to the average family.
What are the characteristics of the top earning Canadians?
The top 1% is predominantly made up of white, middle-aged, married men. These individuals typically live in big cities and hold degrees. They predominantly work in medicine, dentistry, law, engineering, business and finance, and management.
What are the characteristics of the lowest earning Canadians?
Single parents, off-reserve Aboriginal people, people without families between the ages of 45-64, people with work-limiting disabilities, and recent immigrants.
The Gini Coefficient:
A measure of the inequality of a statistical dispersion that can range between 0 - if whatever is being measured is equally distributed among all members of a population (i.e. total equality) - and 1 - if a single individual holds all of whatever is being measured (i.e. maximum inequality). Between 1985 to 2013, the Gini Coefficient went up for all OECD countries. This means that the gap between the rich and the rest of the population increased.
How did Cooley, Mead, and Goffman view the self in regards to social identity?
They focussed on viewing the self as a product of social interaction vs innate. They focussed on individual self-development within the group.
How did Henry Tajfel and John Turner view the self in regards to social identity?
They came up with the social identity theory, which explores how group identity emerges and why individuals often favour their in-groups over out-groups.
What are the key concepts of Social Identity Theory?
- Social Categorization: According to Tajfel and Turner, people categorize themselves and others into groups to make sense of a complex social world. This categorization simplifies social information as people begin to view others as in-group (“us”) and out-group (“them”).
- Social Identification: Once individuals categorize themselves as part of a group, they begin to identify with it, deriving part of their self-esteem and identity from group membership. This identification strengthens the emotional attachment to the group and encourages individuals to adopt the associated norms, values, and behaviours.
- Social Comparison: With group identification comes the tendency to compare one’s in-group to relevant out-groups. These comparisons are often biased in favour of the in-group, where individuals tend to emphasize the positive characteristics of their group and view out-groups less favourably.
- Positive Distinctiveness: Tajfel and Turner propose that individuals seek to achieve a positive social identity by emphasizing their in-group’s distinct and superior characteristics. This drive for “positive distinctiveness” can lead to intergroup conflict when groups compete for social or economic resources, recognition, or dominance.
What are the implications of the social identity theory?
Social identity is rooted in universal and fundamental desires. These desires lead to both solidarity and conflict.
What are the shortcomings of the social identity theory?
It neglects the role of power dynamics (one group often holds more power and access to resources, which fundamentally alters their dynamics), inequality (people make categories, but they don’t do it on an equal footing. Some groups are more privileged, to begin with, and have more respect and power already), and social and historical contexts (Intergroup conflicts are often driven by historical grievances and structural inequalities, not merely the psychological need for in-group distinctiveness.
How did Anderson describe his idea of imagined communities?
He focuses on nations and national identity. The imagination of closeness does not rely on proximity or kinship. It is influenced by the role of media (print, TV, social, etc.), narratives, symbols, inclusion & exclusion (us vs. them), and fluidity.
How did Anthony Giddens view modernity and self-identity?
In traditional societies, self-identity stems from the community and is largely fixed by culture and traditions. It is closely linked to social identity and influenced by communal values and narratives that offer ontological security. In modern societies, the self becomes reflexive, marked by diverse narratives, fluid identities, and a loss of certainty. This leads to new communities and social identities characterized by ontological insecurity and existential anxiety.
Intersectionality:
Rooted in black feminism, this idea stated that neither race nor gender can be understood independently - instead, they intersect. Forms of oppression intersect and compound, creating a distinct form of oppression particular to that intersection. In more recent developments, it is believed that class plays a role, too.
What is the history behind identity politics?
In 1977, a collective of black feminist activists coined the idea that marginalized people experience inequalities differently, so racial, gendered, and sexual prejudice intensify the experience of economic inequality, posing a need for a new form of social movement and political mobilization that rooted in one’s identity (identity politics).
How are identity politics used today?
A way to mobilize and advocate for people experiencing marginalization due to race, ethnicity, sexuality, gender, religion, etc. It is most notably connected with racial and 2SLGBTQA+ identity today. This can be used as a political tool for politicians to garner support from specific identity groups. In the U.S. the Democratic Party has often tried to garner support from communities defined by their racial, ethnic, gender, or sexual identity. In comparison, the Republican Party criticizes identity politics but actually engages in its own form of identity politics.
Identity Economics:
Commercialization of group identity.
What did Nancy Fraser fail to recognize in regards to the sociological perspective?
She neglected class inequality and exploitation in her intersectionality debate.
What did Wendy Brown fail to recognize in regards to the sociological perspective?
She failed to see identity politics as a double-edged sword as it helps people mobilize and fix their identity. Identities rooted in historical injustices and victimhood can constrain people’s political agency.
Wounded Attachments:
By defining themselves through their injuries and victimhood, people remain bound to those injuries as a source of identity. This leads to dependency on the very systems or groups that caused the harm. They seek retribution or recognition from the system rather than looking for a future-oriented change.
The sociology of gender:
Research on gender falls on a continuum: On one end, people argue that gender is biological and is created because of the action of male or female sex hormones on the brain before birth. On the other end of the continuum, people argue that gender is socially constructed through the socialization of children into gender roles. In the middle, emerging evidence shows that biological and social factors impact one another. Hormones affect the brain, but the brain has “plasticity,” and it continues to be shaped by the social environment after birth.
Sex:
Distinction separating male from female based on socially agreed-upon biological differences (e.g., anatomy).
Sex Category:
External and visible signs by which we categorize people into different sexes category.
Gender:
Attitudes and behaviours we associate with masculinity and femininity, non-binary, etc.