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HUBS > Module 3: Nerve and Muscle > Flashcards

Module 3: Nerve and Muscle Flashcards

1
Q

Two parts of nervous system

A

Central nervous system

Peripheral nervous system

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2
Q

What makes up the CNS? (2)

A

Brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

What makes up the PNS? (2)

A

Peripheral nerves

Ganglia

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4
Q

Which cells make up the CNS and PNS? (2)

A

Neurons and glia

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5
Q

What are neurons specialised for?

A

Transmission of information

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6
Q

Main function of glial cells

A

Provide support for neurons

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7
Q

Dendrite functions (2)

A

Receive input

Send information to cell body

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8
Q

Where are the organelles in an axon?

A

In the cell body

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9
Q

Cell body function

A

Sums inputs

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10
Q

Axon function

A

Carries action potentials

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11
Q

Axon hillock location and function

A

Where head meets axon

Initiates action potential

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12
Q

Axon terminal function

A

Release neurotransmitters

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13
Q

Nucleus (CNS)

A

Group of cell bodies in the CNS

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14
Q

Tract (CNS)

A

Bundle of axons in the CNS

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15
Q

Grey matter

A

Group of cell bodies in spinal cord or cerebral cortex

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16
Q

White matter

A

Bundle of axons in spinal cord or cerebral fluid

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17
Q

Ganglion

A

Group of cell bodies in the PNS

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18
Q

Nerve

A

Bundle of axons in the PNS

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19
Q

What are the four neuron components/ zones?

A

Input zone
Summation zone
Conduction zone
Output zone

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20
Q

Input zone

A

Dendrites and cell body

Receives chemical signals from other neurons

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21
Q

Summation zone

A

Axon hillock

Summation of inputs

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22
Q

Conduction zone

A

Axon

Carries action potentials

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23
Q

Where does the axon carry action potentials between? (4)

A

Between brain areas
To and form spinal cord
From peripheral sensory receptors
To effector cells

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24
Q

Output zones

A

Axon terminals

In contact with input zone of effectors or other neurons. Releases neurotransmitters

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25
Q

What is a neurotransmitter a type of?

A

Chemical signal

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26
Q

Name the four neuron types

A

Multipolar
Bipolar
Unipolar
Anaxonic

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27
Q

Multipolar neuron

A

Neuron with multiple processes emanating from cell body

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28
Q

Bipolar neuron

A

Neuron with two processes emanating from cell body

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29
Q

Unipolar neuron

A

Neuron with one process emanating from cell body.

This process branches into a dendrite and an axon

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30
Q

Anaxonic neuron

A

A neuron with no distinct axon. All processes look alike

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31
Q

Five types of glial cells

A

Astrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells
Oligodendrocytes

Schwann cells (PNS)

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32
Q

Astrocyte functions (3)

A

Supply nutrients to neurons
Ensheath blood capillaries
Respond to injury

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33
Q

Microglia function

A

Engulf microorganisms and debris

Immune cells of the CNS

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34
Q

Ependymal cell function

What special component do they contain?

A

Line fluid-filled spaces of the brain and spinal cord

Cilia

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35
Q

Oligodendrocyte function

A

Support axons by ensheathing them with myelin sheath

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36
Q

Schwann cell function

A

Support peripheral nerve fibres by ensheathing them with myelin

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37
Q

How do Schwann cells ensheath the axon? What tissue is used?

A

Wrap their plasma membrane around the axon.

Fat (phospholipid)

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38
Q

Which two glial cells are similar in function?

A

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

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39
Q

What are the gaps between myelin called? What effect do these have?

A

Nodes of Ranvier

Help to increase conduction

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40
Q

Synapse

A

A junction where communication between neurons occurs

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41
Q

Where does the axon potential travel to/from?

A

From axon hillock to axon terminal

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42
Q

What happens after action potential reached axon terminal?

A

Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter fuse with the membrane and release it into the synaptic cleft

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43
Q

At what point is the neurotransmitter transmitted to the post-synaptic neuron?

A

At the input zone receptors

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44
Q

How does the signal change during communication between neurons?

A

Electrical to chemical to electrical

Action potential to neurotransmitter to action potential

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45
Q

Synaptic cleft

A

Small space between axon terminal of pre-synaptic cell and dendrites of post-synaptic cell

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46
Q

Synaptic vesicle

A

Vesicle containing neurotransmitter which waits for a signal to release it

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47
Q

What is the cell releasing neurotransmitter called?

A

Pre-synaptic neuron

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48
Q

What is the cell receiving neurotransmitter called?

A

Post-synaptic neuron

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49
Q

Afferent information

A

Information coming into the brain

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50
Q

Efferent information

A

Response that comes out of the brain

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51
Q

How do we remember the difference between afferent and efferent?

A

Afferent is information ascending up to the brain

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52
Q

Somatic information

A

Information we are aware or/ have control over

E.g. voluntary muscle control

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53
Q

Autonomic information

A

Information we have no awareness of/ body oversees automatically

E.g. blood pressure

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54
Q

Effectors of somatic efferent division

A

Skeletal muscle fibres

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55
Q

Somatic efferent diversion neurons

A

Upper motor neuron

Lower motor neuron

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56
Q

Position of upper motor neuron

A

Cell body in brain

Axon in spinal cord

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57
Q

Position of lower motor neuron

A

Cell body in spinal cord

Axon in spinal nerve

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58
Q

Similarity between upper and lower motor neurons

A

Both are myelinated

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59
Q

Where is the first synapse located in somatic efferent division?

A

In spinal cord

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60
Q

Where is the second synapse located in somatic efferent division?

A

Between lower motor neuron and skeletal muscle fibres

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61
Q

Which neurotransmitter do somatic efferent division synapses release?

A

ACh acetylcholine

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62
Q

Two divisions of the autonomic efferent nervous system

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

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63
Q

Effectors of autonomic efferent nervous system (4)

A

Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Glands
Adipose tissue

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64
Q

How many neurons are used in autonomic efferent pathway?

A

Three

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65
Q

Positions of neurons in autonomic efferent pathway

A
  1. Cell body in brain, axon in brain or spinal cord
  2. Cell body in brain or spinal cord, axon in PNS
  3. Cell body and axon in PNS
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66
Q

Are autonomic efferent pathway neurons 2 and 3 myelinated?

A

2 is, 3 isn’t

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67
Q

Where is the synapse between neurons 2 and 3 in the autonomic efferent pathway?

A

In an autonomic ganglion

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68
Q

Where is the synapse between neuron 3 and effector in the autonomic efferent pathway?

A

On effector

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69
Q

How can we refer to neurons about an autonomic ganglion? (2)

A

Pre-ganglionic neuron

Post-ganglionic neuron

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70
Q

Which neurotransmitter does the first synapse in autonomic efferent pathways release?

A

Acetylcholine ACh

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71
Q

Which neurotransmitter does the second synapse in autonomic efferent pathways release?

A

Acetylcholine ACh in parasympathetic division

Norepinephrine NE/ nonadrenaline

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72
Q

Which system does the term ‘fight or flight’ refer to?

A

Sympathetic division

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73
Q

Which division does the term ‘test and digest’ refer to?

A

Parasympathetic

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74
Q

Which factors increase and decrease in the sympathetic division?

A

Increase: heart rate, pupil size, sweating

Decrease: gastric motility, salivation

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75
Q

Which factors increase and decrease in the parasympathetic division?

A

Decrease: heart rate, pupil size, sweating

Increase: gastric motility, salivation

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76
Q

In which levels of the spinal cord do cell bodies of sympathetic neurons (second) lie?

A

Thoracolumbar levels

T1-L2

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77
Q

In which spinal cord levels do the cell bodies of parasympathetic neurons (second) lie?

A

Cranial and sacral levels

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78
Q

Where so sympathetic ganglia lie?

A

On either side of vertebral column

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79
Q

Where do parasympathetic ganglia lie?

A

Synapse in or near effector

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80
Q

Which division has a short second axon?

A

Sympathetic

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81
Q

Which division has a long second axon?

A

Parasympathetic

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82
Q

Membrane potential

A

Distribution of ions inside and outside the cell which creates a difference in charge across the membrane

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83
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

-70mV

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84
Q

Mechanisms maintaining resting potential (2)

A

Leak channels (potassium and sodium)

Voltage gated channels (potassium and sodium)

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85
Q

What lies at the initial segment of the axon?

A

High concentration of sodium channels

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86
Q

Where is it decided if AP propagation will go ahead or not?

A

Axon initial segment

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87
Q

Gates of ion channels (2) and when they open and close

A

Activation gate: opens when action potential arrives (closer before)

Inactivation gate: closes after depolarisation (open before)

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88
Q

Step one of action potential (at threshold)

A

A local change in membrane potential occurs sufficient to depolarise the cell

Na+ channels open

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89
Q

Step two of AP

A

Na+ channels are open and slow Na+ into the cell

Depolarisation occurs

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90
Q

Step three of AP

A

Na+ channels close
K+ channels open

Repolarisation occurs

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91
Q

Step 4 of AP

A

K+ channels close

Membrane hyperpolarises because K+ channels are slower to close.

Potential returns to resting and both channels close

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92
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

Interval of time in which a second action potential absolutely cannot be initiated

Occurs during depolarisation and repolarisation (steps 2 and 3)

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93
Q

Relative refractory period

A

Interval of time in which a second AP can be generated, but it requires a much larger stimulus than the first AP.

Occurs during hyperpolarisation (step 4)

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94
Q

Propagation of action potentials

A

A regeneration of action potentials along the axon

95
Q

How do AP propagation and conduction of electricity differ?

A

APs are regenerated, not conducted. New versions of the same signal are produced- the same one isn’t carried the whole way down the axon

96
Q

Describe AP propagation

A

Generated at initial segment and sodium channels open there.

Action potential develops in segment 2. Initial segment begins repolarisation by opening potassium channels.

A headed depolarisation brings segment 3 membrane to threshold.

97
Q

Why can APs only move forward?

A

Because the initial segment membrane goes into the absolute refractory period of repolarisation

98
Q

How does propagation of AP in unmyelinated axons differ from that in myelinated axons?

A

AP jumps from node to node in myelinated axons. The internodes (Schwann cells) act as excellent conductors.

99
Q

A stimulus at resting potential produces ____?

A

A graded potential

100
Q

A graded potential may generate ____?

A

An action potential

101
Q

An action potential triggers _____?

A

Synaptic activity

102
Q

Synaptic activity leads to _____?

A

Information processing

103
Q

Where does ACh bind to on the post-synaptic neuron?

A

Protein channels in membrane

104
Q

Event one of transmission at synapse

A

Action potential triggers opening of voltage-gated channels

105
Q

What occurs after action potential triggers opening of channels?

A

Calcium ions diffuse into the axon terminal and trigger synaptic vesicles to release ACh

106
Q

What occurs after synaptic vesicles release ACh?

A

ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and bonds to voltage-gated channels

Producing a graded depolarisation (or EPSP)

107
Q

EPSP

A

Excitatory post synaptic potential

108
Q

What ends depolarisation/ EPSP?

A

AChE breaking down ACh into acetate and choline

109
Q

What happens to the choline that is produced from breaking down ACh?

A

The axon terminal reabsorbs it from the synaptic cleft and uses it to synthesise new ACh

110
Q

IPSP

A

Inhibitory post synaptic potential

111
Q

Is there summation at an NMJ?

A

No- NMJ synaptic transmission is excitatory and absolute

112
Q

Temporal summation

A

Summation over time

Secondary action potentials build on initial one

113
Q

Spatial summation

A

Summation in space

Two simultaneous stimuli from two different neurons summate to give large action potential

114
Q

Where does the spinal cord start?

A

Foremen magnum (opening at base of skull)

115
Q

Where does the spinal cord end?

A

Inferior border of L1

116
Q

Where does the spinal cord lie?

A

Within a meningeal sac that fits within the spinal cavity

117
Q

CSF

A

Cerebrospinal fluid

118
Q

Where is the CSF in the spinal cord?

A

Filling the meningeal sac

119
Q

Purpose of CSF in spinal cord

A

Act as gel cushion for spinal cord

120
Q

Conus medularis

A

Non-neural tissue which attached filium terminale

121
Q

Filium terminale

A

Fibrous non-neural tissue which anchors the spinal cord to the coccygeal vertebrae

122
Q

How many segments of spinal nerves are there?

A

31

123
Q

How many segments of spinal nerves in the cervical part are there?

A

8

124
Q

Cauda equina

A

The group of spinal nerves which have to descend from L1 to their exit vertebrae

125
Q

Dorsal/ posterior column

A

Region of white matter in the spinal cord which lies between the dorsa horn and the posterior median sulcus

126
Q

Ventral column

A

Region of white matter in the spinal cord which lies between the ventral horn and the ventral median fissure

127
Q

Lateral column

A

Region of white matter in the spinal cord which lies between the ventral and dorsal columns

128
Q

Doral median sulcus

A

Central furrow in posterior region of spinal cord

129
Q

Ventral median fissure

A

Deep sulcus (furrow) in the anterior region of the spinal cord

130
Q

Central canal

A

Canal in centre of spinal cord

131
Q

Three horns of grey matter in the spinal cord

A

Dorsal lateral and ventral horns

132
Q

Which section of the spinal cord is associated with efferent division?

A

Ventral- information moves out

133
Q

Which section of the spinal cord is associated with the afferent division?

A

Dorsal- sensory, information moves into spinal cord

134
Q

What does damage to the dorsal section of the spinal cord cause?

A

Paralysis of muscles- somatic motor neurons can’t function

135
Q

What does damage to the ventral section of the spinal cord cause?

A

Loss of sensation- sensory neurons affected

136
Q

Where do somatic motor neurons lie in the spinal cord? Is it their axons or cell bodies?

A

Ventral horn

Cell bodies

137
Q

Where do autonomic motor neurons lie in the spinal cord? Is it their cell bodies or axons?

A

Lateral horn

Cell bodies

138
Q

Where do motor commands leave the spinal cord from?

A

Ventral nerve root

139
Q

Where in the spinal cord do the cell bodies and axons of sensory neurons lie?

A

Cell bodies in dorsal root ganglion

Axons in dorsal nerve root

140
Q

How does sensory information enter the spinal cord?

A

Through the dorsal nerve root

141
Q

Dorsal nerves carry _____ information?

A

Afferent

142
Q

Ventral nerves carry _____ information?

A

Efferent

143
Q

Three branches from spinal nerve

A

Dorsal ramus
Anterior ramus
Rami communicantes

144
Q

Dorsal ramus innervates ___?

A

The back

145
Q

Ventral ramus innervates ___?

A

The front and limbs

146
Q

Which spinal nerves are rami communicantes present in?

A

T1-L2

147
Q

Which kind of axons do rami communicantes contain?

A

Autonomic sympathetic

148
Q

Layer covering axon

A

Endoneurium

149
Q

Axons bundle to form ____?

A

Fasicle

150
Q

Fasicle is covered with _____? (Neural)

A

Perineurium

151
Q

Fasicles are bundled with ____ to form a ____? (Neural)

A

Blood vessels

Nerve

152
Q

Layer covering a nerve

A

Epineurium

153
Q

Three layers of the meninges

A

Dura mater
Arachnoid layer
Pia mater

154
Q

Outermost layer of the meninges

A

Dura mater

155
Q

Function of dura mater

A

Dense and fibrous- acts as first line of defence for the brain of cranium fractures

156
Q

How many layers does the dura mater have?

A

Two- outer and inner

157
Q

Space between two dura mater layers where they split

A

Venous sinuses

158
Q

What forms the dura folds?

A

Inner layer of dura mater

159
Q

Three features of the dural folds

A

Formed from inner layer of dura mater
Separate major divisions of the brain
Provide stability of the brain within the cranium

160
Q

Three dural folds

A 
Falx cerebri (big sickle)
Falx cerebelli (smaller sickle)
Tentorium cerebelli (tent)
161
Q

Where does the falx cerebri sit?

A

Between cerebrum in median/ sagittal plane

162
Q

Where does the falx cerebelli sit?

A

Between cerebelli hemispheres in the sagittal/ median plane (below falx cerebri)

163
Q

Where does the tentorium cerebelli lie?

A

Separating the cerebrum from the cerebellum in the horizontal plane

164
Q

Three features of venous sinus

A

Located where the two layers of dura mater separate
Collecting veins
Collecting venous blood from the brain and old CSF from the ventricular system

165
Q

Venous blood

A

Deoxygenated blood

166
Q

Which is the ‘spider-like’ layer and why is it called this?

A

Arachnoid layer

Sits up on ‘legs’ and has a webbed pattern

167
Q

Five features of arachnoid

A

Beneath dura mater
Above Pia mater
Contains subarachnoid space and arachnoid granulation a
Contains blood vessels within subarachnoid space
Does not extend into sulci (like Pia)

168
Q

Where is the subarachnoid space and what fills it?

A

Between arachnoid and Pia mater

CSF

169
Q

Function of arachnoid granulations

A

Perforate the inner layer of dura mater to transport old CSF from subarachnoid space into the venous sinus

170
Q

Four features of Pia mater

A

Inner layer of the meninges
Transparent and delicate
Provides cushion for blood vessels in arachnoid
Adheres to brain and follows gyri- extends into sulci

171
Q

Four features of the ventricular system

A

Network of interconnected ventricles within the brain

Filled with CSF (nourishes and protects brain)

Ependymal cells lining the ventricles, circulating CSF

CSF is produced by choroid plexus

172
Q

Ventricles (5)

A

2 lateral ventricles (one in each cerebral hemisphere)

Third ventricle (in the diencephalon)

Central aqueduct (midbrain)

Fourth ventricle (level with cerebellum)

(Also central canal)

173
Q

How does CSF circulate the ventricle system and what are its two main purposes?

A 
Lateral ventricles to 
third ventricle to 
cerebral aqueduct to 
fourth ventricle to 
subarachnoid space

Then it flows around the brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space

Ends in venous sinuses (through arachnoid granulations)

174
Q

Name the lobes of the brain (4)

A

Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal

175
Q

Which sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes?

A

Central sulcus

176
Q

Which sulcus separates the parietal and occipital lobes?

A

Parietal-occipital sulcus

177
Q

Which sulcus separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes?

A

Lateral sulcus

178
Q

Which fissure separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum? What structure fits in this fissure?

A 
Transverse fissure
Tentorium cerebelli (a dural fold)
179
Q

Function of frontal lobe (2)

A

Motor control

Somatosensory in the anterior part

180
Q

Function of parietal lobe

A

Somatosensory

181
Q

Function of occipital lobe

A

Vision

182
Q

Functions of temporal lobe (2)

A

Memory

Hearing

183
Q

Name the seven internal structures of the brain

A 
Cerebral cortex
Corpus callosum
Diencephalon
Cerebellum
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata
184
Q

Two parts of the diencephalon

A

Thalamus and hypothalamus

185
Q

Three parts of the brain stem

A

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

186
Q

Most superior internal structure of the brain

A

Cerebral cortex

187
Q

Most inferior structure of the brain

A

Brain stem (medulla oblongata)

188
Q

Three types of white matter in the brain

A

Commissural tracts
Projection tracts
Association tracts

189
Q

Commissural tracts

A

White matter in which axons cross sides of the brain

190
Q

Projection tracts

A

Whyte matter in which axons extend from the cortex into other areas of the CNS

191
Q

Association tracts

A

White matter in which axons extend to another area in the brain on the same side

Allows for communication between brain areas

192
Q

Deep nuclei

Are they darker or lighter?

A

Structures in the brain containing cell bodies

Darker

193
Q

Gyri next to central sulcus (2)

A

Precentral gyrus

Postcentral gyrus

194
Q

Pre-central gyrus

A

Gyrus of motor cortex next to the central sulcus

195
Q

Post-central gyrus

A

Gyrus of the somatosensory cortex next to the central sulcus

196
Q

Corticospinal pathway

A

Two neurons between brain and effector

197
Q

Describe neurons of the corticospinal pathway

A

Upper motor neuron:

  • cell body in precentral gyrus (primary motor cortex)
  • axon extends to spinal cord on opposite side
  • synapses on lower motor neuron

Lower motor neuron:

  • cell body in ventral horn of spinal cord
  • axon extends out of ventral root into PNS
  • synapses on skeletal muscle
198
Q

Dorsal/ posterior column pathway

A

Three neurons between sensory receptors and somatosensory neuron in postcentral gyrus

199
Q

Describe the neurons in the dorsal/ posterior column pathway

A

Neuron 1: (unipolar)

  • cell body in dorsal root ganglion
  • peripheral fibre from sensory receptors in skin
  • central fibre ascends in dorsal columns
  • synapses on neuron 2 in medulla oblongata

Neuron 2:

  • cell body in medulla oblongata
  • axon crosses to opposite side of spinal cord and ascends
  • synapses on neuron 3 in thalamus

Neuron 3:

  • cell body in thalamus
  • axon ascends to somatosensory cortex
  • synapses on cell body of somatosensory cortex neuron
200
Q

What will damage to the primary motor cortex cause?

A

Paralysis and muscle weakness for the corresponding area on the opposite side of the body

201
Q

What will damage to the primary somatosensory cortex cause?

A

Loss of sensation/ no perception of touch in the corresponding area on opposite side of the body

Because information has nowhere to go

202
Q

Describe five steps of the reflex arc

A
  1. Stimulation of receptor
  2. Activation of sensory neuron
  3. Information processing in the CNS
  4. Activation of motor neuron
  5. Response of peripheral effector
203
Q

Spinal reflex

Name two types

A

An automatic response to a particular stimulus

Stretch
Withdrawal

204
Q

Stretch reflex

A

A spinal reflex that regulates muscle length through stimulation of the muscle spindle

205
Q

What surrounds the muscle spindle?

A

Muscle fibres

206
Q

How many synapses in the stretch reflex?

A

One- between sensory and motor neurons

207
Q

Withdrawal reflex

A

Spinal reflex which protects the body from damaging stimuli

208
Q

How many synapses in the withdrawal reflex?

A

Two: sensory neuron to inter neuron

Interneuron to motor neuron

209
Q

What is the role of the interneuron in the withdrawal reflex?

A

Converts the excitatory input from the sensory neuron into inhibitory input into motor neuron on extensor muscles

While relaying excitatory input onto motor neuron on contracting muscle

210
Q

Role of muscle spindle

A

Regulate length of muscle fibres

211
Q

How is work distributed over a muscle?

A

Each motor unit relaxes while others are stimulated, before it is recruited again

212
Q

Which three regions of the brain are involved in preparation for movement?

A

Frontal lobes
Premotor cortex
Cerebellum

213
Q

Main function of cerebellum

A

Prepares and performs movement

214
Q

How does the cerebellum assist movement? (4)

A

Coordinates muscles- guided by sensory feedback

Compares intended movement with actual result

Helps maintain posture and gaze

Helps learn and automate movements

215
Q

What causes ‘drunken gait’?

A

Damage to the cerebellum

216
Q

What shape are sensory neurons?

A

Unipolar

217
Q

Where does sensory input enter the axon?

A

Dendrites

218
Q

5 special senses

A 
Vision
Hearing
Taste
Smell (pheromones)
Vestibular (balance)
219
Q

4 somatic & visceral sensations

A

Touch
Pain
Warm and cold
Body position

220
Q

Role of sensory receptor

A

Transduces information to neuron by converting physical energy into AP

221
Q

How can we describe a sensory stimulus (4)

A

Modality
Intensity
Duration
Location

222
Q

Modality

A

Type of sensory receptor activated

223
Q

Intensity (sensory information)

A

Frequency of action potential firing in afferent neuron

224
Q

Duration (sensory information)

A

Duration of action potential in firing afferent neuron

225
Q

Location (sensory information)

A

Location of sensory receptor(s) activated, mapped in the brain

226
Q

Is there a sensory receptor on a muscle spindle?

A

No. The axon of the sensory neuron wraps around the spindle

227
Q

Receptive field

A

Region of space on the body surface in which a stimulus can lead to activity in a particular afferent neuron

228
Q

What will activate more than one receptive field?

A

A stronger stimuli

229
Q

What does a small receptive field provide?

A

Good discrimination between stimuli

230
Q

‘labelled line’

A

Label on the sensory axon saying where the ap has come from

231
Q

Function of somatic sensory association cortex

A

Generates conscious sensation from action potentials

232
Q

Sensation vs perception

A

Sensation is conscious identification of what and where. Occurs in primary region of somatosensory cortex.

Perception is meaningful interpretation of the sensation. Occurs in the association region of the somatosensory cortex

233
Q

Do densely innervated areas of the body occupy small or large regions of the somatosensory cortex?

A

Large regions

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