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Biology Unit 2 > module 3 > Flashcards

module 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What 3 levels may biodiversity be considered at?

Explain each

A

Habitat
The range if habitats in which different species live

Species
The differences between species

Genetic
Genetic variation between individuals belonging to the same species

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2
Q

What is a species

A

A group of indv organisms very similar in anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, appearance and genetic. They are able to interbreed freely to produced fertile offspring

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3
Q

What is a a habitat

A

The place where an organism lives

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4
Q

Examples of habitat

A

Oak woodland
Freshwater ponds
Rocky shores

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5
Q

What is biodiversity

A

It’s the variety if life -the range of different organisms to be found

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6
Q

What 2 things does biodiversity take into acvount

A

The number of indvs and in how many places they can be found

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7
Q

Why can’t we be sure how accurate our estimates for known species are
4 points

A

We aren’t sure we found all the species on earth
New species are being found all the time
Evolution and speciation are continuing
Many species are endangered and some are becoming extinct

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8
Q

What are the 5 kingdoms

A 
Prokaryotic
Protoctists
Fungi
Plants
Animals
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9
Q

Atleast 3 point facts for each Kingdom

A 
Prokaryotes
No nucleus
Loop of Naked dna
No membrane bound organelles
Smaller ribosomes
Free living or parasitic
Respiration in cell membrane not mitochondria
Protoctists
Mainly single celled 
Eukaryotic
Mainly free living
Autotrophs or heterotrophs
They don't qualify to become any of the other 4 kingdoms
Fungi
Eukaryotic
Chitin cell walls
Have mycelium which is made of hyphae
Multinucleate
Mostly free living and saprotrophic (cause decay of organic matter)
Plants
Multicellular
Eukaryotic
Autotrophs
Cellulose cell wall
Animals
Eukaryotic
Multicellular
Heterotrophs
Can move around mostly
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10
Q

Why do we classify loving things

4

A

Because it convenient for us
Study of living things becomes more manageable
Easier to identify organisms
To help see the rel between species

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11
Q

Why is it important to understand animals

A

Cz animals are close to humans genetically esp apes. So to understand them could help in understanding ourselves and our evolution in many ways

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12
Q

What are the ranked categories called

A

Taxonomic groups

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13
Q

Why has the original classification system by Linnaeus changed?

A

Because we find more organisms

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14
Q

What are the 8 taxa

A 
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
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15
Q

What happens as you rise through the ranks of classification/taxa

A

The indvs grouped together show more and more diversity

Number of similarities and level of relatedness get less and less

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16
Q

What are the 3 domains

A

Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryotae

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17
Q

Whys it easy to classify species at the top of the classification system but it gets harder towards the species taxa

A

Because the organisms begin to share more biochemical, physiological, genetic, appearances so it easy to mistake one for another or think both belong to the same species or genus etc

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18
Q

Give an example of when classification can be easy which taxa

A

Kingdom and phyla because differences are great

E.g. chordata (vertebrates) and anthropoda (invertebrates)

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19
Q

Give an example of when classification can be more difficult taxa

A

Difference between different classes

Insects and arachnids are harder to classify. A more detailed description of the species is needed

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20
Q

Why does using a common name for species not work well

4 points

A

Because the same organism may have a different common name

Different common names are used in different countries

Translation of languages and dialects may give a different common name for the same species

The same common name may be used for different species

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21
Q

What language is used for species nane

A

Latin

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22
Q

How does using the same language or a universal language help in terms of naming species

A

It prevents confusion

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23
Q

What does binomial mean

A

2 names

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24
Q

What are the 2 names used in naming species

A

Genus name and species name

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25
Q

Which has a capital letter and which is in lower case throughout of from the genus and species

A

Genus capital

Species lower case throughout

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26
Q

Hiw must the binomial Latin name be written

A

In print
Italic

Handwritten
Underlined

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27
Q

How do we check that a development won’t harm the environment

A

Environmental assessment exercise

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28
Q

What do we need to do before we begin a large development

A

Check if the environment in question may be harmed

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29
Q

Why do we need to identify living things esp in an area

A

To check what species are present in an area
and how rare they are
Which determines whether the Dev should carry on or halt for the sake of the species in that environment

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30
Q

What is a dichotomous key

A

Uses questions with 2 alternative answers to help you identify a specimen

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31
Q

What is the binomial system

A

Uses 2 names to identify each species

The genus name and the species name

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32
Q

Hi do you kniw a dichotomous key is good

A

It’ll have 1 question less than the number of species it can identify

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33
Q

What were earlier classification to systems based on and what we’re their problems

A

Appearance and anatomy

Often led to misclassification cz of lack of adequate descriptions available for classification

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34
Q

What allowed these classification systems to improve

A

Advancement in technology eg electron microscopes and more research and info done and is available

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35
Q

What problem did better microscopes identify in terms of earlier classification systems

What was the other problem with earlier classification systems

A

Some single celled organisms shared both animal like and plant like features and not just one of each

Fungi were difficult to classify
Like plants they don’t move
But they don’t synthesise
Like animals they digest organic matter and absorb the nutrients

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36
Q

What is physiology about and what other other branch of scientific study grew out of it

A

Study of how loving things work

Biochemistry

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37
Q

What 2 biochemical methods can be used in classification

A

Cytochrome c

Dna

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38
Q

Describe and explain cytochrome c in terms of classification

4

A

A biochemical method for classification

Cytochrome c is a protein used in respiration

The amino acids of cytochrome c from one species can be identified an compared to another species

The following conclusion can be drawn
If the sequences are very similar or the same we’d conclude the specie are closely related
If the sequence if different we’d conclude the 2 species are not so closely related
The more difficult found between the species the less closely related they are

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39
Q

Describe and explain dna in terms of biochemical classification
4

A

All living organisms use dna

Dna provides the genetic code which is the same for all organisms

Comparing dna sequence can be used as a way to classify species

The more similar the species the more closely related they are to each other

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40
Q

How else other than classification can we use dna

A

To clarify ir core t rels were unsure about

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41
Q

What is the basis of the 3 domain classification

A

The kingdom prokaryotae has 2 very different domain in it (bacteria and archaea)

The archaea have many similarities to the Eukaryotae
(Similar membrane structure, flagellum structure, RNA polymerase and proteins on their dna, dna replication and RNA production mechanisms are similar)

Bacteria are very different to the archaea and Eukaryotae
(Different membrane structure, different flagella structure, RNA polymerase, different mechanism for dna replication and RNA production)

These differences suggest that a split is needed
The archaea are more closely related to the Eukaryotes than are the bacteria

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42
Q

What are the 2 forms of variation WITH IN a species

A

Continuous and discontinuous

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43
Q

What is continuous variation

A

Where there’s a full range of intermediate phenotypes between 2 extremes

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44
Q

What is discontinuous variation

A

Where there are discrete groups of phenotypes with no intermediate values

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45
Q

What is variation

A

Is the pretense if variety ir differences in individuals

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46
Q

What is genetic variation

A

Caused by differences between the genes and the combination of genes or alleles

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47
Q

Give examples 3 of continuous variation

A

Height in human
Length if leaves
Length if stalk
Foot length

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48
Q

Examples of discontinuous variation

A

Sex
Human blood group
Flagella or not
Attached ear lobe or not

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49
Q

What are the 2 causes of variation

A

Environment

Genetics

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50
Q

How do genetics cause variation

A

There is never a complete genetic match

There are approx 25k genes in human cells many of which have more than one allele

So likelihood of any 2 indvs sharing exact combination of alleles is remote

So the combination of characteristics each of us possesses is unique which causes variation

51
Q

How can the environment cause variation

A

Environmental factors can affect the phenotype and cause variation

Examples
Intense sunlight burns skin and causes tanning
eating too much causes increase in weitht
Starvation causes a loss of weight and affects health

52
Q

Not all our genes are active

E.g.
When you reach puberty many changes occur in your body because different genes are becoming active. Changes in the environment affect which genes are active. This is what brings about the changes you see

A

Just random info

53
Q

What is an adaptation

A

It’s a feature/variation that enhances survival and long term reproductive success

54
Q

How does the process if evolution work

A

By selecting particular adaptations to survive from on generation to the next

55
Q

What happens if an indv has an advantageous characteristic

4

A

They’re more likely to survive and reproduce in the environment in question than the indv that doesn’t have the advantageous characteristic

Over many generation more will have that advantageous characteristic cz those who didn’t would die out

therefore the characteristic is an adaptation.

The adaptation has been selected

56
Q

What can a well adapted organism be able to do

A 
Find enough food
Photosynthesis well
Protect itself from predators
Protect itself from disease
Find enough water
Respond to changes in its environment
Survive extreme changes in its environment
Have enough energy left over to successfully reproduce
57
Q

What are the 3 types if adaptations

Explain them

A

Behavioural
The behaviour of an organism that helps it to survive the conditions it lives in

Physiological/biochemical
The physiology or biochemistry of an organism that ensure the correct functioning of the cell processes

Anatomical
Any structure that enhances the survival of the organism is an adaptation

58
Q

What are xerophytic plants

A

Plants that are adapted to live in very dry conditions

59
Q

Behavioural adaptations of xerophytic plants

3

A

Some close their stomata to reduce water evaporation from the plant to the surrounding environment

Some only open their stomata at night because there’s less light therefore less water evaporation which conserves water and enhances survival

Some fold or roll their leaves when water is in short supply. This is done by trapping moist air in the folded or rolled leaves, reducing the water vapour potential gradient which decreases evaporation of water and conserves water for survival

60
Q

Physiological/behavioural adaptations of xerophytic plants

A

The mechanisms by which an xerophytic plant can open and close it’s stomata, fold it leaves or store water.

61
Q

Anatomical adaptations of xerophytic plants

A

Structures that enable a plant to survive in dry conditions

Roots are shallow but spread over a wide area. This allows it to absorb as much water as possible when it’s available

Roots may be very long and narrow which allows it to absorb water from deep inside the soil

Leaves smaller in size, reduces surface area for evaporation of water

Waxy cuticle on leaves reduces evaporation of water
Leaves may be folded ir rolled or hairy. This traps a layer of moist air next ti the stomata reducing the water vapour potential gradient which decreases evaporation of water by transpiration.

62
Q

What was Darwin proposed mechanism

A

Natural selection

63
Q

Where did darwin go to for his trip

A

Galapagos islands

64
Q

What 4 observations did darwin make

A

No 2 indvs are the same

Offspring are very similar to their parents

Organism can reproduce to make a large number of offspring

Populations I’m nature tend to remain fairly constant in size

65
Q

What were the 3 conclusion of Darwin

A

There is a struggle to survive

Organisms with the better adaptations will survive and pass on their characteristics

Due to variations a number of changes may give rise to a new species or speciation

66
Q

What is natural selection

A

Is the selection by the environment of particular indvs that show certain characteristics

OR the process in which some environmental factors determine which indvs will survive

These indvs will survive to reproduce and pas on their advantageous characteristics

67
Q

What do indvs undergo that when selected

A

Selection pressures

68
Q

4 examples of environmental factors that act as selective pressures

A

Availability of food
Predators
Disease
Physical and chemical factors (temp, desert/snow etc)

69
Q

What is speciation

A

The formation of a new species

70
Q

How long does speciation take

A

Usually over many generations

But bacteria and single celled organisms can go through speciation because they can pass through many generations within a few hours

71
Q

How does speciation occur

4

A

There must be a reproductive barrier

When this happens advantageous characteristics or variations can’t be passed on to other groups of the same species

This means that some members of the same species become different to others

Difference could be so great that they can no longer interbreed which causes speciation

72
Q

2 examples of reproductive barriers

A

Geographical seperation
Due to a large body of water so live in 2 different lands
This is allopatric speciation

Biochemical/behavioural/physical changes that prevent fertilisation
Courtship dance no longer recognised
Sexual organs of 2 groups if indvs are no longer compatible and can’t mate
This is sympatric speciation

73
Q

Again how dies evolution occur but in 5 steps

A

Variation occurs

The environment selects indvs with advantageous variation or characteristics

Indvs with advantage survive and reproduce

So they pass on their advantageous characteristics

The next generation will be better adapted to their environment

74
Q

Which cause of variation os important for evolution

A

Genetic not environmental

75
Q

Effect of speciation on diversity

A

Increases it

76
Q

Can evolution occur within a species without speciation occurring
Is diversity still increase this way
Examples if yes or no

A

Yes
Some indvs may have an advantageous characteristic but can still interbreed. This increases diversity -species diversity
Wild salmon same species but cz some live in different areas they’re not all adapted to live in all areas of indvs in their species

77
Q

Evidence of evolution occuring today using to organisms

A

The insects

Microorganisms

78
Q

Talk about evidence of insect evolution

A

Insecticide used by humans to kill insects

Insecticide therefore act as selection pressures on insects

If insect is susceptible it’ll due. If it has some sort of resistance it’ll survive.

The insects that survive will pass on the resistance characteristic to offspring

Resistance spreads quickly throughout the populations as generations pass on

79
Q

Give 2 ways in which insect shave developed resistance against insecticide

A

Have an enzyme that can break down the insecticide

The target receptor protein on the cell membrane may be modified

80
Q

Give an example of insect that have gone through evolution

A

Some mosquitos developed resistance to DDT by metabolising them

81
Q

2 problems with insects evolving

A

Harder for us to control the spread of malaria and outbreaks of other insect pests

Pesticides may move up the food chain due to the insects serving them which may be harmful to humans

82
Q

Talk about microorganisms evolution

A

Antibiotics act as selective pressures on bacteria

Many bacteria die because of them but some develop resistance agaibst the antibiotic

Those that survive reproduce and pass on their resistance characteristic to future generations

83
Q

Problems with microorganisms evolving

A

People tend to stop taking antibiotics when they feel better. But a lot if times this occurs when the bacteria that is left tend to be the most resistant and all the susceptible ones die.
This causes the resistant ones to reproduce at a large scale due to lack of antibiotics which could be very harmful for the human affected. Therefore it’s important for us to compete our antibiotic cycle

Also due to new strains of resistant bacteria we need to develop new antibiotics which costs us a lot and is time consuming

84
Q

Individuals don’t evolve

Individuals are selected and the population evolves

A

Just some info

85
Q

What is extinction

A

When a species ceases to exist

86
Q

How do human activities affect nature

A

We’re using more of the earth’s resources
Our activities harm other species
Loss of biodiversity
Extinction may occur

87
Q

How does extinction affect biodiversity

A

Reduces it

88
Q

What happens if we remove natural vegetation for food

A

Removes the habitat of many organisms

Chances of extinction become greater for some species

89
Q

What is the problem with using a monoculture

A

Lacks biodiversity

90
Q

Human activities that reduce biodiversity and lead to extinction

A

Hunting for food
Killing fir protection
Killing to remive competitors for our food
Pollution
Hi a bat at destruction (deforestation)
Introduction of new predators and competitors.

91
Q

4 reasons why we need to conserve species

A

Economic
Ecological
Ethical
Aesthetic

92
Q

Economic and ecological reasons why we should conserve

A

Evolution has provided answers to many technological problems we face. E.g. best aerodynamic shape in water. Best shape of a wing in air etc

These answers are provided by millions of years of evolution

Extinction of certain species means we could be losing many solutions to new problems.

93
Q

How do natural ecosystems perform process that are of value to humans

A 
Regulation of the atmosphere and climate
Purification and retention of fresh water
Formation and fertilisation of soil
Recycling if nutrients
Detoxification and recycling of wastes
Crop pollination
Growth of timer, food and fuel.
94
Q

Ethical and aesthetic reasons to conserve species

A

All urbanism have the right to live. Loss of habitat prevents many organisms from living where they should.

We experience a feeling of joy and wellbeing when observing the infinite variations of nature.

Studies have shown that patients recover more rapidly from stress and injury when they are exposed to pleasing natural environmental conditions

95
Q

What would happen if there wasn’t any genetic diversity

A

Speciation will be highly unlikely. Organism won’t be able to adapt to changes in the environment

96
Q

What are threats to species with a low genetic diversity

4

A

Changes in the climate
Increase in pollution levels
Emergence of new diseases
Arrival of new pests

97
Q

Effects of reducing gene pool

A

Decreases genetic diversity and then ability for a species to evolve

98
Q

What is gene pool

A

The sum total and variety of all genes in a population or species at a given time.

99
Q

What can ecosystems do if they can’t adapt

A

Migrate

100
Q

Obstruction to migration of ecosystems

4

A

Major human developments
Agricultural land
Large bodies of water
Humans

101
Q

How could climate change affect agriculture

6

A

Higher carbon dioxide levels altering photosynthesis
Higher temperatures increasing growth rates
Longer growing seasons
Greater evaporation of water therfore greater precipitation
Loss of land due to rise in sea level and increased salinity of the soil
A change in the distribution of precipitation

102
Q

Why are domesticated animals and plants particularly at risk from climate change

A

Because we selectively bred them in specific conditions. They have little variation. They’ll be unable to adapt and evolve to changing environment. When change incurs, farmers will notice their crops don’t have the same amount of yield as before. They’ll have to change the crops they grow and the varieties of animals they keep.

103
Q

How does climate change affect in terms if diseases

A

Crops being grown in different areas will encounter new diseases and pests. These crops won’t have resistance to them cz they’ve never encountered them.

Higher temp means more pests and diseases may be able to overwinter successfully and cause greater infestations earlier in the year. This will mean lower yields and less food for humans

New diseases may also be able to migrate which increases spread to new areas and possibly more deaths.

104
Q

What happens if we decline biodiversity

A

Genetic diversity declines. We could lose the natural solution to some of our problems

We may not be able to breed new crop varieties that can cope with the new conditions created by climate change

Genetic engineering to create transgenic species wouldn’t be able to be used

Important cz of the medical potentials from certain species.

105
Q

What is conservation in situ

A

Conserving a species in its normal environment

106
Q

4 ways of conserving in situ

A

Legislation
Conservation parks
Conservation reserves in the uk
Repopulation

107
Q

Tall about legislation in terms of conservation in situ

Problems with legislation

A

Can pass legislation to ban hunting, clearing land etc

Can be difficult to persuade certain countries legislation is necessary
Can be difficult to enforce such of girl action, especially if the gov is not in favour of it

108
Q

Examples of conservation parks on terms of in situ

A

National parks
Nature reserves
Private land
Farm sites

109
Q

What are the principles of choosing a reserve or park?

3

A

Comprehensiveness
How many species are represented in the area and what are the prevailing environmental conditions
Adequacy
Is the area large enough
Representativeness
Is there a full range of diversity within each species and set of environmental conditions

110
Q

Advantages of having a reserve in terms of in situ conservation
7

A

Plants and animals are conserved in their natural environment
Permanently protects biodiversity and ecosystems
Permanently protects elements of natural a nd cultural heritage
Ensures that ecological integrity is maintained
Provides opportunities for ecologically sustainable land uses.
Facilitates scientific research
May be possible to restore the ecological integrity of the area

111
Q

Role reasons why conflicts may arise with indigenous when making reserves

A

Protected animals coming out of the reserve to destroy crops
People hunt protected animals for food
Illegal harvesting of timber and other plant products
Tourists feeding protected animals or leaving litter.

112
Q

4 type of conservation reserves in uk

A

National parks
National nature reserves
Sites of special scientific interest
Local nature reserves

113
Q

Talk about repopulation

A

When biodiversity has been lost, it’s possible to rebuild it

114
Q

What is conservation ex situ

A

Conserving and endangered species by activities that take place outside it’s normal environment

115
Q

Tall about role of zoos or wildlife parks in terms of conservation ex situ

A

Breed endangered species. Increase number of indvs in an endangered species
Enable Repopulation by introducing captive bred animals to the wild.
Protects them from predators and their health can be maintained by veterinary science

116
Q

Why cm can captive breeding be difficult

6

A

The animals aren’t in their natural environment so it’s likely they may not be able to breed successfully
Limited space, which limits number of indvs which reduces genetic diversity
Low genetic diversity is low variation
So animals less able to adapt to changing environment Which affects it’s ability to breed successfully
Have to survive reintroduction to the wild which may be difficult for them especially if they were born under captivity
Difficult with acceptance by existing wilding wild members of their species

117
Q

What does freezing sperms and eggs help in terms of conservation ex situ

A

Preserves large amounts of genetic material

118
Q

4 points on freezing sperms and eggs

A

Sperms freezing, artificial insemination, in vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer techniques are used with domestic animals. Can also be used with wild animals

Further research into each endangered species is needed to ensure the techniques are used effectively

Research on domestic species that is very similar to the target species can help to speed up progress

This also save the rare endangered individuals from experimental work until the last steps.

119
Q

Why conservation of plants is easier or easy

8

A

Most plants naturally have a dormant stage. The seed

Seeds can be controlled from the wild without causing too much disturbance to the ecosystem cz of their large numbers

Seeds can be stored and germinated in protected surroundings

Seeds can be stored in large numbers without taking up too much space

Plants can be bred asexually

Botanical can increase the number of individuals rapidly

This provides a large amount of individuals for research

The captive bred in divs can be replanted in the wild

120
Q

What are the disadvantags of seed conservation

6

A

Collections of wild seeds will still cause disturbance

Collected sample may not hold a representative selection of genetic diversity

Seeds collected from the same species from another area will be genetically different and may not succeed in a different area

Seeds stored for any length of time may not be viable

Plants bred asexually will be genetically identical. Reducing genetic diversity
Research conclusion from a small sample may not be valid for the whole species

121
Q

What is the largest ex situ conservation

A

The Kew millennium seed bank in Sussex

122
Q

What is the Sussex things goal

A

Collect a sample of seeds from every known species of plant

123
Q

Talk about seed banks

A

Seeds can remain fir decades and even hundreds of years

Can be used for food, building materials, disease resistant crops, Repopulation etc

124
Q

How do scientists ensure seeds are still viable

5

A

Must remive samples and germinate them periodically
They plant the seeds in petri dishes of nutrient agar and keep them in controlled conditions
Scientists measure the germination rate and the succession of germination
This enables scientists to monitor the condition of the stored seeds
Research continues further and with luck this will lead to discovery of the most effective methods of storage

Biology Unit 2 (3 decks)

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