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module 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What does good nutrition give us or help us

A 
Better health
Strong immune system
Become I'll less often
Help you learn more effectively
Stronger
More productive
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2
Q

Name 7 nutrients and their role

A

Carbohydrates
Source and supply of energy

Lipids
Source and supply of energy. Are also used as electric conductors in nerve cells

Proteins
For growth and repair of muscle and body tissues

Minerals
Inorganic elements occurring in the body that are essential to its normal functions

Fibre
Indigestible, essential for healthy functioning of digestive system

Vitamins
Role in chemical processes taking place inside cells

Water
Transporting substances around body and a s a medium for chemical reactions

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3
Q

Why is it impossible to give guideline advice on energy intake that will apply to everyone

A

Because it depends on people level of activity and out level of activity isn’t always the same

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4
Q

H woo do you know if your diet contains enough energy

A

Change in mass ir weight

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5
Q

What is malnutrition caused by

A

An unbalanced diet

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6
Q

An example of the most common form of malnutrition in the west with explanation

A

Obesity
Consuming too much energy
Excess energy deposited as fat in adipose tissue

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7
Q 
What bmi indicates
 underweight
Healthy
Overweight
Obese
A

18.5 and below
18.5 to 25
25 o’t 30
30 and over

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8
Q

What is nutrition

A

It’s nourishment

The nutrients and energy needed for health and growth

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9
Q

What is a balanced diet

A

One that contains all the nutrients required for health in appropriate proportions

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10
Q

What is obesity

A

When a person is 20% or more heavier then the recommended weight for their height or when their bmi is over 30

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11
Q

Equation for bmi

A

Mass in kg
Divided by
Height in m squared

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12
Q

What 3 health problems is obesity considered to be a factor of

What 3 stuff is it also linked to

A

Coronary heart disease
Cancer
Type 2 diabetes

Gallstones
OsteoarthritisHypertension

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13
Q

How do you avoid becoming under or over weight

A

Balancing overall energy intake with energy use

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14
Q

How is CHD caused

A

Due to atherosclerosis which involves the deposition of fatty substances in the walls of the coronary arteries.
This narrows the lumen which restricts cloud flow to the heart which can cause oxygen starvation

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15
Q

Components of the duet that can decrease CHD?

A

Fibre and omega 3

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16
Q

What are the 3 components that are thought to increase risk of CHD

A

Salt
Lipids
Cholesterol

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17
Q

How can salt lead to CHD

A

Excess salt

Decreases water potential of blood

So blood pressure increases which can lead to hypertension

Hypertension can damage the inner lining of the arteries

This can lead to atherosclerosis

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18
Q

How can lipids cause CHD

A

Saturated fats are more harmful than unsaturated fats

Poly and mono unsaturated fats found in olive oil are beneficial to health

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19
Q

How can cholesterol increase risk of CHD

A

Found I eggs, meat, dairy products

made in the liver from saturated fats

Too much cholesterol in the blood is harmful

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20
Q

What is cholesterol used ti make

A

Steroid sex hormones and bile

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21
Q

How can cholesterol be soluble to be transported around body

A

Converted into a different firm as lipoprotein

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22
Q

What are lipoproteins

A

A molecule with the combination of lipid, cholesterol and protein used to transport fats and cholesterol aroubd the body

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23
Q

What are the types of lipoprotein

A

High density

Low density

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24
Q

What are hdl made out of

A

Unsaturated fats, proteins and cholesterol

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25
Q

Process of hdls

A

Carry cholesterol from the body tissues back to the liver

The cholesterol is used int cell metabolism or is broken down

So hdls are associated with reducing blood cholesterol

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26
Q

Process of ldls

A

Carry cholesterol from liver to body tissues

Ldl blood concentration will rise if too much saturated fats are consumed

The causes the fat to be deposited in the inner lining of the artery walls

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27
Q

What are ldls made out of

A

Saturated fats, protein and cholesterol

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28
Q

Role of poly and mono and saturated fats in affecting Ldl receptors

A

Saturated fats decrease activity of Ldl receptors
Less is removed from blood as blood Ldl concentration rises
So a higher concentration of Ldl in blood happens which lead to them being deposited in the artery walls

Polyunsaturated
Increase activity of the ldls receptors and so decrease concentration of Ldl in blood

Monounsaturated
Seem to help remive ldls from the blood too

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29
Q

Do we eat lipoproteins

A

No

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30
Q

5 ways of decreasing levels of ldls in blood

A

Not consuming a lot of stay rated fats
Having low fat duet to reduce overall concentration of lipoprotein
Eating a lot of unsaturated fats increases proportions of hdls which decrease blood cholesterol levels
Eating polyunsaturated fats ti reduce concentration of ldls in blood
Sting monounsaturated fats to help reduce blood Ldl concentration

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31
Q

What do plants make when they absorb carbon dioxide and what form

A

Carbohydrate

Starch

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32
Q

What are omnivores

A

Organisms that eat both plants and animals

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33
Q

How can we make food production more efficient in plants

A

Improve growth rate of crops
Increase size of yield from each plant
Reduces loss of plants due to disease and pests
Standardise plant size to make harvesting easier
Improve plant response to fertilisers

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34
Q

How can we make food production more efficient in animals

A

Improve growth rate
Increase productivity
Increase resistance to disease

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35
Q

What is artificial selection

A

Intentional breeding of certain traits

It’s purpose is to increase the benefits to humans

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36
Q

What are the 3 stages to selective breeding

A

Isolation
Artificial selection
Interbreeding

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37
Q

Who is applying the selection pressure during selective breeding

A

Humans

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38
Q

What is marker assisted selection

A

It’s when a section of dna is used as a marker to recognise the desired characteristic
Once offspring have been produced from selected offspring their dna is checked for the marker

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39
Q

Advantages of using marker assisted selection

A

Allows selection at an early stage

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40
Q

Examples of selective breeding

2

A

Farmers breed cattle for high milk yield or meat production
Dairy cows can produce over 40 litres of milk a day

Chickens are bred for egg or meat production. Egg layers can produce over 300 a year whilst unselected one only produce 20 to 30 a year

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41
Q

Examples of marker assisted selection

A

Tomatoes have been bred with improved disease resistance. The allele responsible for the resistance (to yellow lead curl virus) was identified and bred into a domestic variety

Apley have been bred with improved disease resistance and improved flavour and texture

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42
Q

Hiw else can food production be improved other than selective breeding

A

Using fertilisers
Contain nitrate, potassium, phosphate and increase growth rate

Pesticides
Kill organisms that cause disease in crops which may affect for production

Antibiotics
Infected animals treated with antibiotics which reduces spread of disease among other animals especially when I’m close proximity. Diseases can decrease growth rate and impair reproduction

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43
Q

What is selective breeding

A

Where humans select the individual organisms that are allowed to breed according to chosen characteristics

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44
Q

What are fertilisers

A

Minerals needed for plant growth, which are added to soil to improve fertility

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45
Q

What are
Pesticides
Fungicides
Antibiotics

A

Chemical that kills pests

Chemical that kills fungi

Chemical that kills ir prevent reproduction of bacteria

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46
Q

4 ways microorganisms can spoil our food?

A

Visible growth
When fungi grow on food. When penicillium grows on bread

Exeter al digestions by releasing enzymes into food to absorb nutrients. Food becomes smells sweet as sugars are broken down from carbs

Production if toxins
Example botulin toxin on food

Or seen ce of micros can cause infection if on food
E.g. salmonella bacteria

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47
Q

W sense if preventing food spoilage

A

Killing micros ir preventing them from reproducing

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48
Q

10 ways to prevents food spoilage

A

Cooking
Heat denatured proteins

Pasteurised
Heating to 72 then cooling to 4 to kill enzymes quickly

Drying salting and coating in sugar
Due to difference in WP water leaves by osmosis cause sing them to dehydrate

Smoking
Smoke contains antibacterial chemicals

Pickling
Acid pH kills micros by denaturing their proteins

Irradiation
Disrupts their dna structure

Cooling and freezing
Growth, metabolism and reproduction of micros is slow

Canning
Airtight, not microbes cm can enter

Vacuum wrapping
Air excluded, no microbes can respire aerobically

Plastic or paper packaging

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49
Q

4 examples of food made with the help of micros

A

Cheese
Made from curdled milk. Acted upon by lactobacillus bacteria, favoured using fungi

Yoghurt
Same as milk uses lactobacillus bacteria

Alcohol
Product of anaerobic respiration if alcohol

Bread
Bubbles of gas collect in dough making it rise. This is cz of the anaerobic respiration of yeast which produces CO2 gas

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50
Q

What recently have microorganisms been used for in terms of food

A

Scp To manufacture proteins that is used directly as food eye quorn

51
Q

Potential of scp production using such microorganisms

A

They can produce protons with a similar amino acid profile to animal and plant protein.
They can grow on almost any organic substrate including waste material

52
Q

6 Advantages of using microorganisms in food

A

Protein production is faster than animals or plant protein

Production easily controlled depending on demand

No animal welfare issues

Source if protein for veg

No animal fat or cholesterol on protein

Scp production can be combined with removal of waste products

53
Q

5 disadvantages if using micros in food

A

Ppl don’t want to eat fungal protein or that grown on waste

Microbes need to be isolated from material on which they grow. Costs a lot

Protein should be purified to ensure its uncontaminated

Infections: conditions used ideal for pathogenic organisms

Doesn’t have taste or texture of traditional protein sources

54
Q

6 things that define you’re in good health

A 
Free from disease
Can carry our normal psychical and mental tasks 
Well fed with a balanced diet
Happy
Suitable housing
Well integrated with society
55
Q

What is health

A

A state of mental physical and social wellbeing

56
Q

What is disease

A

Departure from good health caused by a malfunction of the mind or body

57
Q

What’s a parasite

A

Organism that lives in or on another loving things. Causes harm to host

58
Q

What’s a pathogen

A

An organism that causes disease

59
Q

External and internal parasite what are they?

Examples

A

Ext live on host
Head louse

Int live in host
Tapeworm

60
Q

How can parasites lead to secondary infections

A

Cause damage that allows other organism to invade the host

61
Q

4 organisms that cause infectious diseases

A

Bacteria
Fungi
Viruses
Protoctists

62
Q

Talk about bacteria in terms of it causing disease

A

A prokaryotae
Reproduce and multiply rapidly
Cause disease by damage cells or release waste products that are toxic

63
Q

Examples of bacteria and what disease theyre involved in

2

A

Vibrio cholerae
Cholera

Mycobacteria tuberculosis
Tb

64
Q

Talk about fungible terms of causing disease

A

Fungus lives in skin.
Sends out reproductive hyphae which grow to the surface of the skin to release spores
Causes redness and irritation

65
Q

2 example so diseases caused by fungi and the fungi involved

A

Athletes foot
Ringworm

Tinea

66
Q

Talk about viruses in terms of causing disease

A

Invade cells and take over their genetic machinery and other organelles
Cause cell to manufacture more copies of the virus
Host cell bursts releasing many new viruses

67
Q

Examples of diseas cause by virus

2

A

HIV

influenza

68
Q

Talk about Protoctista in term if causing disease

A

Cause harm by entering hist cells

feed on the contents as they grow

69
Q

Example of Protoctista and disease they cause

A

Malaria
Palsmodium feeds on content of red blood cells

Amoeboid dysentery

70
Q

What dies transmission mean

A

The way in which a parasitic microbe travels from one host to another

71
Q

4 ways for a pathogen to cause a disease

A

Travel from one host to another
Get into hosts tissues
Reproduce
Cause damage to hosts tissues

72
Q

Pathogen will need to pass primary defences

Then secondary defences or immune responses

A

Just saying

73
Q 
3 forms of transmission
Read book about 3
Malaria
HIV
Tuberculosis
A

Vector
Physical contact
Droplet infection

74
Q

What is who

A

Part if ya the UN

Seeks highest possible level of health for all people

75
Q

What does ill health cause

A

A lot of suffering and economic cost

76
Q

10 factors contributing to poor health of people

A 
Poverty
Lack of proper shelter
Lack of purified water
Poor nutrition
Poor hygiene
Lack of investment by gov
Poor health service
Inadequate education about causes and transmission if disease
Warfare
Inadequate transport that prevent people reaching medical assistance
77
Q

What is it called when you study the spread of disease and the factors affecting that spread

A

Epidemiology

78
Q

What can you do through epidemiology

11

A 
Identify the causes of disease
Identify risk factors
Determine incidence of a disease
Determine the prevalence of a disease
Determine the mortality
Determine the morbidity
Study how quickly it's spreading
Identify whether endemic, epidemic or pandemic
Identify countries at risk
I'd neatly part of pop at risk
Check how well control programmes are working
79
Q

What is incidence

A

The number of people who die of a disease per year

80
Q

What is prevalence

A

The number of people with the disease at a given time

81
Q

What is mortality and morbidity

A

The number of people who die from the disease per year

The number of people with the disease as a proportion of the population

82
Q

What is endemic
Epidemic
Pandemic

A

Always present in the pop
Spreading rapidly to a lot of people I’ve a large area
A worldwide epidemic

83
Q

How can they help to plan to use their resources more effectively when it comes to health organisations
6

A

Targeting education or grammes to inform people of the risks and how ti avoid disease
Targeting advertisements to raise awareness
Targeting screening programmes to identify indvs at risk
Providing specialise health care in certain areas
Providing vaccination programmes for the major diseases
Targeting research to find cures for disease.

84
Q

What are the 3 sections for primary defences

A

The skin

Mucous membrane

Other primary defences

85
Q

Talk about the skin as a primary defence

A

Outer layer of skin is called epidermis
Which consists of keratinocytes which are cells

These cells are produced by mitosis at the base of the epidermis they then migrate to the surface of the skin and dry out, the cytoplasm is replaced by the protein keratin.

86
Q

Talk about mucous membranes

A

The epithelial layer contains mucus secreting cells called goblet cells

The mucus lines the passages and traps any pathogens that may be in the air

The apathetic also has ciliate cells. The villa are tiny hair like organelles that can move. They waft the layer of mucus along

Mucus is swallowed and passes down the digestive system in which most pathogens are killed cz of the acidity of the stomach. It denature the pathogens enzymes

Also found in got, genial areas, anus, ears and nose

87
Q

3 other primary defences

A

Antibodies in the tear fluid

Wax which traps pathogens

Acidic conditions of vagina

88
Q

Secondary defence?

A

Non specific phagocytes

89
Q

Whatvare the 2 types of phagocytosis

A

Neutrophils

Macrophages

90
Q

Talk about neutrophils

A

Most common

Manufactured in bone marrow

Squeeze out of the blood into tissue fluid

May be found in epithelial surfaces

Shirt lived but released in large numbers

91
Q

Talk about macrophages

A

Manufactured in bone marrow

Travel in blood as MONOCYTES

Tend to settle in lymph nodes, where they develop into macrophages

Also play a vital role on see civic responses to invading pathogens

92
Q

How do phagocytosis work

A

Engulf and destroy pathogenic cells

A pathogen is recognised as foreign by their antigens when it invades the body

Antigens are specific to the irgend, we have antigens but they’re recognised as our own so we don’t respond to them

Antibodies in the blood attach to foreign antigens

The receptors on the membrane of phagocytosis attach to the antibodies, this process may be assisted ty other proteins called opsonins

The phagocytosis will then envelop the pathogen by flying it’s membrane inwards

The pathogen is then trapped inside a vacuole called a phagosome.

Lysosomal fuse with the phagosome and related enzymes called lysins into it which digest the bacterium

The end products are absorbed into the cytoplasm

The neutrophils are short liver so will die soon after digesting a few pathogens

They mag collect in an area of infection to create pus

93
Q

Talk about the role of macrophages

A

Infected cells release chemicals such as histamine, which attracts neutrophils to the area

Histamine also makes capilares more leaky. So more fluid leaves the capillaries in the area of infection

This means more tissue fluid passes into the lymphatic system. This leads the pathogens towards the macrophages waiting in the lymph nodes.

Macrophages play and important role in initiating the immune response

The immune response is the activation of lymphocytes in the blood to help fight the disease

94
Q

Whatvare antigens

A

Molecules that stimulate an immune response

95
Q

What are antibodies

A

Protein molecules that can identify and neutralise antigens

96
Q

What do antigens stimulate

A

The immune response by stimulating production of antibodies

97
Q

What type of molecules are antigens

A

Proteins or glycoproteins

98
Q

What produces antibodies

A

Lymphocytes

99
Q

Whatvare the 4 structures of an antibody

A

4 polypeptide chains

A constant region

A variable region

Hinge region

100
Q

Talk about the 4 polypeptide chains in antibody

A

They’re held together by disulfide bridges

101
Q

Talk about the constant region

A

Same in all antibodies

Enables antibody to attach to phagocytic cells so helps in the process of phagocytosis

102
Q

Talk about variable region

A

Has a specific shape and differs from on antibody to another cz if it’s amino acid sequence

So the antibody can only attach to the correct antigen

103
Q

Talk about the hinge Region

A

Allow a certain degree of flexibility

So allows attachment to more than one antigen

104
Q

Two ways in which antibodies work and explain

A

Neutralisation
Antibody course the pathogen binding sites preventing the pathogen from binding to a host cell and entering the cell

Agglutination

A large antibody can bind many pathogens together
The griup of pathogens is too large to enter a host cell

105
Q

Why does it take a few days before the number of antibodies on the blood ruses to a level that cba combat the infections successfully

What is this stage called

A

Because the antibodies are still being produced

The primary immune response

106
Q

What happens with the antibodies once infection is gone

A

Number in blood drop

107
Q

What happens ti antibodies if an infection happens again by the same pathogen

Stage called

A

Immune system acts quicker production of antibodies starts sooner and quicker

So concentration of antibodies rises sooner and 4 waches a higher concentration

This is the secondary immune response

108
Q

How is cell signalling achieved

A

Through cell surface molecules and the release of hormone like chemicals called cytokines

109
Q

How do t and b lymphocytes detect signals

A

Have target receptors that are complementary in shape to antigens

110
Q

Whatvare the 4 sections for the what sort of info is communicated between cells

Talk about them

A

Identification
Antigens on pathogens cell surface act as flags or markers that say I am foreign they’re detected by our body cells

Sending distress signals
Internal cell organelles such as lysosomes of the cell that had been invaded by the pathogen will fight the pathogen off. Many pathogen cells will be killer and parts of them will end up attached to the host plasma membrane. These have 2 effects
They act as a distress signal and can be detected by cells from the immune system
Also act as markers to indicate that the host cell is infected, t killer cells recognise this

Antigen presentation
Macrophages act like phagocytosis to engulf and digest
They don’t fully digest it they separate out the antigens and incorporate them into a cell surface molecule. This is exposed on the surface of the macrophage
So they become known as an antigen presenting cell
It’s function is to find the lymphocytes that can neutralise that antigen

Instructions
Communication using cytokines includes the following
Macrophages release monokines that attract neutrophils (by chemotaxis)
Macrophages release Monokines that can stimulate b cells to differentiate and release antibodies
T cells b cell and macrophages release interleukins which can stimulate proliferation and differentiation of b and t cells
Many cells can release interferon which can inhibit virus replication and stimulate the activity of t killer cells

111
Q

What are memory cells

A

Cells that circulate in the blood after an immune response

They speed up the response to a subsequent attack by the same pathogen

112
Q

What are lymphocytes

A

White blood cells that circulate around the body in the blood and lymph
B cells originate in the bone marrow
T cells originate in the bone marrow but mature in the thymus gland

113
Q

How do lymphocytes divide

A

Mitosis

114
Q

Whatvare the 3 types of cells t and by lymphocytes develop into

A

T helper cells. Release cytokines that stimulate the b cells to develop and stimulate phagocytosis by phagocytes

T killer cells
Attack and kill infected body cells

T memory cells

Plasma cells which flow around in the blood manufacturing and releasing the antibodies

B memory cells that remain in the body for many years and act as immunological memory

115
Q

Why does the immune response take time

A

The correct lymphocytes must be selected

Cells must divide to increase in number

Must differentiate into plasma cells

Plasma cells must manufacture the antibodies

116
Q

What is vaccination

A

A deliberate exposure to antigenic material, which activates the immune system to make an immune response and provide immunity

117
Q

What forms of antigenic material are there?

A

Live microorganisms. Must have very similar antigens to those that cause the real disease

Harmless pathogenic organism

Dead pathogen

Preparation. Of the antigens from a pathogen

Harmless toxin

118
Q

What are the 2 ways of using vaccination

A

Herd

Ring vaccination

119
Q

What is herd vaccination

A

Using a vaccine to provide immunity to all or almost all of the population at risk. Once enough are immune the dishes can no longer spread

120
Q

Talk about ring vaccination

A

Used when new disease found

Vaccinate all the people in the immediate vicinity of the new cases

121
Q

What is active immunity

A

Immunity that I’d achieved by activation of the immune system
Plasma cells manufacture antibodies
Immunity can last for many years even a lifetime

122
Q

What is passive immunity

A

Provided by antibodies that hasn’t been manufactures by plasma cells and stimulating the recipient’s immune system

E.g. mother across the placenta or via breast milk

Short lived

123
Q

What is natural immunity

A

Gained in the normal course of living processes

May be gained cz of an infection that stimulates the immune response

124
Q

What is artificial immunity

A

Gained by deliberate exposure to antigenic material antibodies or antigens

Biology Unit 2 (3 decks)

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