Module 2a: Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society Flashcards
This is a fundamental change of perspective or view; this involves paradigm shifting.
Revolution
The uses of astronomy are to tell time, to determine the seasons, serves as calendars and navigation, and to predict the future (like eclipse and rainfall)
Astronomy before Copernicus
True or False: Greeks rely on supernatural explanations.
False
Greeks used mathematics, logic,
and reasoning in matters of astronomy.
True or False: The pyramids are built to line up with the stars, and their religion often revolves around astronomical objects.
True
They continued to develop math and astronomy, even when Europe fell into the Dark Ages. Aside from that, Algebra and the concept of the algorithm were developed.
Arabic Science
Many stars were Arabic names, typically those that has
“Al” in their names just like “Algol” and “Alberio”.
True or False: Aristotle believed that everything in the universe should be perfect, and that the universe was that of a
Geocentric (Earth-centered) model.
True
It was called Aristotelian Model.
In Ptolemaic model (which is also geocentric), smaller circles called ______ more around bigger circles called the ______.
small circles - epicycles
bigger cycles - deferent
True or False: Epicycle is smaller circle that planet is on.
True
Earth is not quite at the center and the Equant sat
opposite of the Earth.
Ptolemy’s mathematical model and observations was so compelling even when Copernicus had presented heliocentric model, Ptolemy’s was used because it has higher predictive power. Thus, it was used for 1500 years.
The idea of _______ (planets orbit the sun) is much older.
Heliocentrism
It can be traced to Aristarchus of Samos, a Hellenistic author writing in the 3rd century BC, who may in
turn have been drawing on even older concepts in and accepted in Aristotelianism.
Copernicus’s own system had multiple shortcomings that would have to be amended and explained by later astronomers like _______ and _____.
Kepler and Galileo
He proposed a
“geo-heliocentric” system.
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
What is a geo-heliocentric system?
The Sun and Moon orbited the Earth, while the other planets orbited the Sun.
This idea provided a safe position for astronomers who were dissatisfied with older models but were reluctant to accept heliocentrism.
His work aimed to make astrology “more certain” by basing it on new physical and
harmonic principles.
After Tycho’s death, he used Tycho’s data to back up his solar hypothesis. He discovered three laws of planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
What are the three laws of planetary motion?
o the planets revolve in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus;
o the time needed to traverse any arc of a planetary orbit is proportional to the area of
the sector between the central body and that arc (“area law”);
o there is an exact relationship between the squares of the planets’ periodic times and
the cubes of the radii of their orbits (“harmonic law”).
He has been called the “Father of Observational Astronomy”.
Unlike the popular belief, he was not the one who invented the telescope, rather he improved it. He championed heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
True or False: Galileo’s writings on heliocentrism had him accused of attempting to reinterpret the Bible. In spite of controversy, he championed the Copernican model and gathered evidence to support it.
True
When his critics confronted him with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth, he argued that
heliocentrism was not contrary to biblical texts, and that the Bible was an authority on faith and morals, not science
What is Galileo’s response to these objections:
If Earth is moving, birds, clouds, and etc, would fall off as Earth moved.
Physics experiments leading to Newton’s first law of motion.
What is Galileo’s response to these objections:
Heavens are perfect (circular orbits).
Imperfections: sunspots, moon not a perfect sphere.
Orbits are elliptical, not circular (Kepler).
What Galileos response to this?
If Earth orbits, parallax should have been observed.
Parallax were negligible because stars were so distant.
Parallax is the apparent displacement or the difference in apparent direction of an object as seen from two different points not on a straight line with the object.
He wrote Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (1802). He proposed that environmental events could cause a response in organisms that can be inherited and passed on to generations.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
He wrote an essay on the Principle of Populations (1798). He argued that a growing population will eventually outgrow its resources if left unchecked. His essay greatly inspired Darwin’s ideas on Evolution.
Thomas Robert Malthus
He suggested that old forms had become extinct as a result of successive floods and new forms had each time taken their places.
Cuvier
He wrote Principles of Geology (1830-33), revived Hutton’s principle of slow geological change, and presented a classic explanation of development over millions of years.
Charles Lyell
This idea wherein species remained unchanged was called the
Through simple animal husbandry, it was shown how it was not true; a “pup” could have a slightly different (and inherited) look from its parents.
Immutability of the species
Scientists of this time period and before thought that Saint Bernards, dachshunds, and chihuahuas always existed. Following that logic, it meant that these breeds of dog lived throughout history, essentially unchanged.
Darwin showed that living organisms can adapt to changes in their surroundings through a process he called
Natural Selection
He observed that the species in the islands were diversified yet at the same time, share common characteristics.
Charles Darwin; Galapagos Islands
Origin of Species tackled on “Descent with Modification”, known as ________.
Evolution
It basically unifies all life forms, suggesting that all organisms are related through a distant
ancestor. Over time, organisms diversify because of “Natural Selection” and adaptation.
Natural selection and adaptation occur because of the following: (3)
a) capacity for “overproduction” of offspring;
b) a struggle for survival; and
c) variability in population favors some individuals over others.
Geographic proximity of similar but distinct species.
Homologies: structural, developmental, and genetic.
This evidence is for what?
Evidence that Species are Related.
Law of succession
-In a given geographic region, species are succeeded by similar species
Evidence of extinctions in the fossil record
- Vestigial traits - traits that seem to have no apparent function at present-day but
appear to have been remnants from a past ancestor.
This evidence is for what?
Evidence that Species Change over Time.
True or False:
Early Beginnings of Psychology: Relation of mind to body
They believed that mind and body are connected:
a. The Hebrews
b. Aristotle
c. Socrates
False
It was Augustine and not Socrates.
True or False:
Early Beginnings of Psychology: Relation of mind to body
Mind and body are distinct:
a. Aristotle
b. Plato
c. Descartes
False
It was Socrates and not Aristotle.
They believed that some ideas are born.
Socrates and Plato
They believed that the mind is a blank state.
Aristotle and Locke
True or False: Modern-day psychology deals with the scientific study of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings)
True
Individual’s unique patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Personality
Attempt to describe and explain how people are similar, how they are different, and why every individual is unique.
Personality Theory
He is the founder of psychoanalysis and proposed the first complete theory of personality.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
He thinks that a person’s thoughts and behaviors emerge from tension generated by unconscious motives and unresolved childhood conflicts.
Sigmund Freud
It is both an approach to therapy and a theory of personality. It emphasizes unconscious motivation. It lies on the principle that the causes of behavior are deep in the unconscious mind.
Psychoanalysis
All the thoughts, feelings, and sensations that you are aware of at this particular moment represent the conscious level.
Conscious Mind
A region of the mind holding information that is not conscious but is easily retrievable into conscious awareness.
Holds thoughts and memories not in one’s current awareness but can easily be retrieved (for example: childhood memories, phone number)
Preconscious Mind
A region of the mind that includes unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and
memories. No awareness of these thoughts, wishes, etc. but these exert influence over our conscious thoughts and behavior
Unconscious mind
Freud believed that dreams were “The royal road to the unconsciousness”, that behind the surface image (______ content) lied the true hidden meaning (_______
content).
manifest content; latent content
An error in speech that occurred because of an unconscious wish or subdued preoccupation to something (example: A boy accidentally calling her girlfriend with a different girl’s name)
Freudian Slip
It is the part of personality that consists of unconscious energy from basic aggressive and sexual drives. It is the impulsive, unconscious part in the mind that is based on desire to seek immediate satisfaction.
Id
Sources of energy:
a. life instinct, perpetuates life
b. - death instinct, aggression, self-destructive actions
c. sexual energy or motivation
a. Eros
b. Thanatos
c. Libido
It mediates the demands of the id without going against the restraints of the superego.
It follows the reality principle. In order for people to maintain a realistic sense here on
earth, it is responsible for creating balance between pleasure and pain.
Ego
Although the ego does not know the difference between right and wrong, it is aware that not all drives can be met at a given time.
It develops around age four or five, incorporates the morals of society. It can be considered to be the conscience of the mind because it has the ability to distinguish between reality as well as what is right or wrong.
Superego
Freud separates the superego into two separate categories;
The ideal self and the conscience
Category of superego that contains ideals and morals that exist within society that prevent people from acting out based on their internal desires.
Conscience
Category of superego that contains images of how people ought to behave according to societies ideals.
Ideal self
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
-Oral - mouth (breast feeding)
-Anal - anus (toilet training)
-Phallic - genitals (Oedipus/ Electra complex)
-Latency - (defense mechanism)
-Genitals- genitals (full sexual maturity)
This is when a boy is jealous of his father. The boy strives to possess his mother and ultimately replace his father as a means of no longer having to fight for her undivided attention and affection.
Along with seeking his mother’s love, boys also experience castration anxiety which is the fear of losing his genitalia. Boys fear that their fathers will retaliate and castrate them as a result of desiring one’s mother.
Along with seeking his mother’s love, boys also experience castration anxiety which is the fear of losing his genitalia. Boys fear that their fathers will retaliate and castrate them as a result of desiring one’s mother.
Oedipus Complex
He identified three types of anxiety.
Sigmund Freud
a. Reality Anxiety
b. Neurotic Anxiety
c. Moral Anxiety
Girls become jealous of their
mothers and begin to feel desire towards their fathers.
Females also experience penis envy which is the parallel reaction to the male experience of castration anxiety. Females are jealous of their fathers’ penis and wish to have one as well. Girls then repress this feeling and instead long for a child of their own.
This suppression leads to the girl
identifying with her mother and acquiring feminine traits
Electra Complex
Most basic form of anxiety and is based on the ego. It is typically based on the fear of real and possible events.
Reality Anxiety
An unconscious fear that the basic impulses of the id will take control of the person, leading to eventual punishment from expressing the id’s desires.
Neurotic Anxiety
Comes from the superego. It appears in the form of a fear of violating values or moral codes and appears as feelings like guilt or shame.
Moral Anxiety
True or False:
Defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes employed by the ego to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
True
When anxiety occurs, the minds first response is to seek rational ways of escaping the situation by increasing problem solving efforts and a range of defense mechanisms may be triggered. These are ways that the ego develops to help deal with the id and the superego.
Defense mechanisms often appear unconsciously and tend to distort or falsify reality. When the distortion of reality occurs, there is a change in perception which allows for a lessening in anxiety
resulting in a reduction of tension one experiences.
Type of Mechanism
Puts anxiety-producing thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious mind. The basis for all other defense mechanisms.
e.g. Three years after being hospitalized for back surgery, the person can remember only vague details about the event.
Repression
Type of Mechanism
Let an anxious person refuse to admit that something unpleasant is happening.
e.g. An alcoholic fails to acknowledge that he is addicted to alcohol.
Denial
Type of Mechanism
Allows an anxious person to retreat to a more comfortable, infantile stage of life.
e.g. After her parents’ divorce, a ten-year-old girl refuses to sleep alone in her room,
crawling into bed with her mother.
Regression
Type of Mechanism
Replacing an unacceptable wish with its opposite
e.g. Boys go out of their way to tease and torment their crushes.
Reaction Formation
Type of Mechanism
Reducing anxiety by attributing unacceptable impulses or problems about yourself to
someone else.
e.g. A married woman who is sexually attracted to a co-worker accuses him of flirting
with her.
Projection
Type of Mechanism
Displaces real, anxiety-provoking explanations with more comforting justifications for one’s actions.
Reasoning away anxiety-producing thoughts.
e.g. A student who got rejected by a prestigious university says that he is glad,
because he would be able to enjoy his teenage life at a smaller, less competitive
college.
Rationalization
Type of Mechanism
Shifts an unacceptable impulse toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.
e.g. Angered by a neighbor’s unsolicited comment, a mother spanks her son for accidentally spilling his milk.
Displacement
Type of Mechanism
A form of displacement in which sexual urges are channeled into nonsexual activities that are valued by society.
e.g. A graduate student works tirelessly on her thesis while her husband is away on
a business trip.
Sublimation
A sublimation defense mechanism works by redirecting negative feelings or impulses into positive ones. Transforming one’s anxiety or emotions into pursuits considered by societal or cultural norms to be more useful.
Type of Mechanism
Unconsciously neutralizing an anxiety causing action by doing a second action that undoes the first.
e.g. A woman who gets a tax refund by cheating on her taxes makes a larger than
usual donation to the church collection on the following Sunday.
Undoing
True or False: Freud’s psychosexual stages say that a maturing person has a specific stage that he/she has to go through successfully within the specified time frame in order to become an adult with a healthy mind.
True
True or False:
E. Erickson also had a similar idea wherein each stage or time frame of development has a certain crisis/task. Unlike Freud’s though, these crisis or task per stage are more of highlights. This means that if a person was not able to accomplish successfully a certain crisis/task, it would not mean that he/she could not change at a later stage of development.
True
Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory (8).
- Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
- Initiative vs. Guilt
- Industry vs. Inferiority
- Identity vs. Confusion
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Integrity vs. Despair
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves or they doubt their abilities.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt
Autonomy is independence or freedom, as of the will or one’s actions.
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks or they feel inferior.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused of who they are.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity of intimate love, or they feel socially isolated.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
The middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of contribution or failure.
Stage 8: Integrity or Despair
