Module 2: Research Strategies Flashcards
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I- knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Operational Definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
Meta-Analysis
a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.
Case Study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Naturalistic Observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)
Correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
Experimental Group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control Group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
Double-Blind Procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Placebo Effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Independent Variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Confounding Variable
in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.
Dependent Variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
Informed Consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
Testing Effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.
Representative Sample
a sample that accurately reflects the larger population.
