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Psychology 105 > Module 2: Research Methods > Flashcards

Module 2: Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

The Value of Skepticism

A

Proving claims to be wrong. Scientists attempt to disprove theories rather than to prove them.

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2
Q

The Value of Controlled Experimentation

A

Careful observation under controlled conditions is an important aspect of the scientific method.

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3
Q

Observer-expectancy effects

A

People conducting the research may unintentionally communicate the desired responses from the subjects.

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4
Q

Steps in the Scientific Process

A

1) Identify the problem
2) Gather the information
3) Generate a Hypothesis
4) Design and Conduct Experiments
5) Analyze data and formulate conclusions
6) Restart the process

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5
Q

Cycle of Science

A

-> Fact -> Theory -> Hypothesis ->

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6
Q

Hypothesis

A

A testable prediction about new facts made from theory

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7
Q

Fact

A

An objective statement based on the observation that reasonable observers agree is true.

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8
Q

Theory

A

An idea that explains existing facts, a hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs.

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9
Q

Identify the Problem

A

Observations, previous research, established theories, or intuition can help identify the problem.

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10
Q

Gather Information

A

Search literature to see what has been studied about the problem.

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11
Q

Generate a Hypothesis

A

Develop a specific and simple hypothesis based on the information gathered. Predict how the variables are related.

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12
Q

Design and Conduct experiments

A

Test hypothesis by using different research methods.

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13
Q

Analyze Data and Formulate Conclusions

A

See if the data obtained match predicted results; data match hypothesis?

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14
Q

Restart the process

A

Think about the original problem. Replicate and extend results or ask an entirely new question.

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15
Q

Descriptive Research

A

Describe behaviours in natural settings through case studies, naturalistic observation and surveys. Measures all variables, examines more natural contexts, and extraneous factors are not controlled.

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16
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Observe behaviour without manipulation.

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17
Q

Participant Observation

A

Researcher interacts w/ population of interest; may be subject to biases due to presence of observer during the experiment w/ participants.

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18
Q

Case Studies

A

In-depth analysis of an individual, group, or situation. Not an experimenter, so causal relationships cannot be drawn. Famous example is H.M. Read notes for advantages and disadvantages.

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19
Q

Survey Research

A

Uses asks questions to extract specific information from a group of people. Refer to notes for advantages and disadvantages.

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20
Q

Correlational Studies

A

Relationship between/among variables. Can identify relationships and make predictions. Cannot tell us about cause and effect.

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21
Q

Correlation

A

The direction and strength of a relationship between two variables. Mathematically described, and is ranged from
+1.0 to -1.0. Sign indicates direction, and the abs value indicates strength. Denoted as r.

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22
Q

Three Components of Correlational Studies

A

1) The researcher measures one variable (X), such as people’s birth order.
2) The researcher measures a second variable (Y), such as a personality trait.
3) The researcher statistically determines whether X and Y are related.
Refer to notes for advantages and disadvantages.

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23
Q

Experimental Methods

A

Indicates ‘Cause-and-Effect’ relationships. Testing theories through controlled experiments. Can be used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. Hypothesis-driven.

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24
Q

Characteristics of Hypothesis

A

1) Consistent w/ prior observation
2) Simple
3) Specific
4) Measurable
5) Establish Causality
6) Falsifiable

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25
Q

Three essential characteristics of Experimental Methods

A

1) Manipulate one variable
2) Measure whether this variable produces changes in another variable
3) Control for other factors that might influence results

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26
Q

Independent Variable

A

What the experimenter manipulates, and it must have at least two levels.

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27
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The outcome measure. What the experimenter counts or measures.

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28
Q

Extraneous Variables

A

Also known as confounding variables. Any variables that are not the focus of the study, but may influence the outcome of the research if not controlled.

29
Q

Simple Random Sample

A

Everyone has an equal chance of being picked.

30
Q

Stratified Random Sample

A

DIvide population into subgroups (also called “strata”), and take a simple random sample from such groups.

31
Q

Non-random Sample

A

Due to some study constraints, there are not equal chances of being picked.

32
Q

Convenience Sample

A

Work with what you’ve got (e.g., subject pool, PSYCH 105 students)

33
Q

Experimental Groups

A

The group that you are conducting the experiment on, receives treatment (exposed to the indep. variable) and measures the effectiveness of the indep. variable on the dependent variable.

34
Q

Control Group

A

The group that you are not conducting the experiment on, is not exposed to the treatment (not influenced by the indep. variable) and is used to compare experimental results w/ the behaviour affected only by naturally-occurring conditions.

35
Q

Random Assignment

A

A procedure in which each participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any group within an experiment.

36
Q

Between Groups (or between-subjects) Design

A

Each group in the experiment is composed of a different set of participants.

37
Q

Repeated Measures (or within-subjects) Design

A

Each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable.

38
Q

Internal Validity

A

The degree to which the experiment is free from errors and any difference in measurement is due to IV and nothing else.

39
Q

External Validity

A

The degree to which the research results can be generalized to other people, other settings and other times.

40
Q

Observer/Experimenter-Expectancy Effects

A

Researchers/Observers unintentionally influence participants by sending different signals to people in different conditions. Observer’s expectations influence their perception or judgement of participant’s behaviour.

41
Q

Double-Blind Procedure

A

Both researchers and participants don’t know which experimental condition the participant is in.

42
Q

Participant/Subject-Expectancy Effects

A

When different treatments in an experiment induce different expectations in participants, which may account for observed differences in participants’ responses.

43
Q

Placebo Effect

A

The effect of a treatment that arises from a participant’s expectations but not the indp. variable.

44
Q

Replication

A

The process of repeating a study to determine whether the original findings can be duplicated.

45
Q

Meta-analysis

A

A statistical procedure for combining the results of different studies that examine the same topic to test the overall significance of the findings.

46
Q

Cross-cultural Replication

A

Examining whether the findings generalize across different cultures.

47
Q

Ethical Standards

A

Designed to protect the welfare of both human and animal subjects in psychological research.

48
Q

Ethics

A

A set of general principles of how people should be educated, treated, and respected when participating in any study.

49
Q

Principle A: Beneficence and Non-maleficence

A

This principle states that research should strive to do good (beneficence) and avoid creating experiments that can intentionally harm (maleficence) participants.

50
Q

Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility

A

In research, this means that researchers should be honest and reliable with participants.

51
Q

Principle C: Integrity

A

The principle of integrity states that psychologists should engage in accurate, honest, and non-biased practices in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology.

52
Q

Principle D: Justice

A

The concept of justice strives to establish “equality” in the research process. Specifically, those people who participate in the research process should also be the same people who stand to benefit from the research outcomes.

53
Q

Principle E: Respect for people’s Rights and Dignity

A

This principle states that each person is valued in the research process and that researchers should take measures to respect and protect participants’ rights, privacy, and welfare

54
Q

Inclusion Criterion

A

A participant attribute that is essential to answer the research question.

55
Q

Exclusion Criterion

A

Any attribute that would prevent participation because one cannot answer the research question.

56
Q

International Review Boards (IRB)

A

Review and assess if a research project will be carried but in a way that is consistent w/ the general ethical principles.

57
Q

Psychologists Must…

A
  • Protect and promote the welfare of participants
  • Avoid doing harm to participants
  • Not carry out any studies unless the benefit is greater than the risk
  • Seek informed, ongoing, consent
  • Ensure Privacy and Confidentiality
58
Q

Deception

A

The most controversial ethical issue in human psychological research. Used when knowing the true purpose of the study may affect participants’ natural behaviours. Participants must be debriefed at the end of the research to make known the true purpose of the research and why deception was used.

59
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

Used to summarize data.

60
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

Help researchers decide how confident they can be in judging that the results observed are not due to chance.

61
Q

Mode

A

The most frequent value.

62
Q

Median

A

The value given for the middle data point.

63
Q

Mean

A

Average; the centre of a dataset, skewed by outliers.

64
Q

Range

A

Describes the difference between the largest and the smallest points in a data (Subtract lowest from highest data value).

65
Q

Standard Deviation

A

The spread of data around the mean; sqrt of variance. Low SD means that the data points are closer to the mean. High SD is more variability.

66
Q

Variance

A

Average of squared deviation scores; (SD)^2

67
Q

Skewness

A

A measurement of the symmetry of a distribution. Positive Skew=Right Skewed; Spread of scores above the mode is greater than that below (right tail is longer). Negative Skew=Left Skewed; Spread of scores below the mode is greater than that above (left tail is longer).

68
Q

5% Rule

A

If the probability of an event is less than 5%, we call that a “rare” event. This gives us a guideline to detect differences. 1.64 SD’s away from the mean represent the most extreme 5% of our data.

Psychology 105 (9 decks)

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