Module 2: Research Methods Flashcards
The Value of Skepticism
Proving claims to be wrong. Scientists attempt to disprove theories rather than to prove them.
The Value of Controlled Experimentation
Careful observation under controlled conditions is an important aspect of the scientific method.
Observer-expectancy effects
People conducting the research may unintentionally communicate the desired responses from the subjects.
Steps in the Scientific Process
1) Identify the problem
2) Gather the information
3) Generate a Hypothesis
4) Design and Conduct Experiments
5) Analyze data and formulate conclusions
6) Restart the process
Cycle of Science
-> Fact -> Theory -> Hypothesis ->
Hypothesis
A testable prediction about new facts made from theory
Fact
An objective statement based on the observation that reasonable observers agree is true.
Theory
An idea that explains existing facts, a hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs.
Identify the Problem
Observations, previous research, established theories, or intuition can help identify the problem.
Gather Information
Search literature to see what has been studied about the problem.
Generate a Hypothesis
Develop a specific and simple hypothesis based on the information gathered. Predict how the variables are related.
Design and Conduct experiments
Test hypothesis by using different research methods.
Analyze Data and Formulate Conclusions
See if the data obtained match predicted results; data match hypothesis?
Restart the process
Think about the original problem. Replicate and extend results or ask an entirely new question.
Descriptive Research
Describe behaviours in natural settings through case studies, naturalistic observation and surveys. Measures all variables, examines more natural contexts, and extraneous factors are not controlled.
Naturalistic Observation
Observe behaviour without manipulation.
Participant Observation
Researcher interacts w/ population of interest; may be subject to biases due to presence of observer during the experiment w/ participants.
Case Studies
In-depth analysis of an individual, group, or situation. Not an experimenter, so causal relationships cannot be drawn. Famous example is H.M. Read notes for advantages and disadvantages.
Survey Research
Uses asks questions to extract specific information from a group of people. Refer to notes for advantages and disadvantages.
Correlational Studies
Relationship between/among variables. Can identify relationships and make predictions. Cannot tell us about cause and effect.
Correlation
The direction and strength of a relationship between two variables. Mathematically described, and is ranged from
+1.0 to -1.0. Sign indicates direction, and the abs value indicates strength. Denoted as r.
Three Components of Correlational Studies
1) The researcher measures one variable (X), such as people’s birth order.
2) The researcher measures a second variable (Y), such as a personality trait.
3) The researcher statistically determines whether X and Y are related.
Refer to notes for advantages and disadvantages.
Experimental Methods
Indicates ‘Cause-and-Effect’ relationships. Testing theories through controlled experiments. Can be used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. Hypothesis-driven.
Characteristics of Hypothesis
1) Consistent w/ prior observation
2) Simple
3) Specific
4) Measurable
5) Establish Causality
6) Falsifiable
Three essential characteristics of Experimental Methods
1) Manipulate one variable
2) Measure whether this variable produces changes in another variable
3) Control for other factors that might influence results
Independent Variable
What the experimenter manipulates, and it must have at least two levels.
Dependent Variable
The outcome measure. What the experimenter counts or measures.
Extraneous Variables
Also known as confounding variables. Any variables that are not the focus of the study, but may influence the outcome of the research if not controlled.
Simple Random Sample
Everyone has an equal chance of being picked.
Stratified Random Sample
DIvide population into subgroups (also called “strata”), and take a simple random sample from such groups.
Non-random Sample
Due to some study constraints, there are not equal chances of being picked.
Convenience Sample
Work with what you’ve got (e.g., subject pool, PSYCH 105 students)
Experimental Groups
The group that you are conducting the experiment on, receives treatment (exposed to the indep. variable) and measures the effectiveness of the indep. variable on the dependent variable.
Control Group
The group that you are not conducting the experiment on, is not exposed to the treatment (not influenced by the indep. variable) and is used to compare experimental results w/ the behaviour affected only by naturally-occurring conditions.
Random Assignment
A procedure in which each participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any group within an experiment.
Between Groups (or between-subjects) Design
Each group in the experiment is composed of a different set of participants.
Repeated Measures (or within-subjects) Design
Each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable.
Internal Validity
The degree to which the experiment is free from errors and any difference in measurement is due to IV and nothing else.
External Validity
The degree to which the research results can be generalized to other people, other settings and other times.
Observer/Experimenter-Expectancy Effects
Researchers/Observers unintentionally influence participants by sending different signals to people in different conditions. Observer’s expectations influence their perception or judgement of participant’s behaviour.
Double-Blind Procedure
Both researchers and participants don’t know which experimental condition the participant is in.
Participant/Subject-Expectancy Effects
When different treatments in an experiment induce different expectations in participants, which may account for observed differences in participants’ responses.
Placebo Effect
The effect of a treatment that arises from a participant’s expectations but not the indp. variable.
Replication
The process of repeating a study to determine whether the original findings can be duplicated.
Meta-analysis
A statistical procedure for combining the results of different studies that examine the same topic to test the overall significance of the findings.
Cross-cultural Replication
Examining whether the findings generalize across different cultures.
Ethical Standards
Designed to protect the welfare of both human and animal subjects in psychological research.
Ethics
A set of general principles of how people should be educated, treated, and respected when participating in any study.
Principle A: Beneficence and Non-maleficence
This principle states that research should strive to do good (beneficence) and avoid creating experiments that can intentionally harm (maleficence) participants.
Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
In research, this means that researchers should be honest and reliable with participants.
Principle C: Integrity
The principle of integrity states that psychologists should engage in accurate, honest, and non-biased practices in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology.
Principle D: Justice
The concept of justice strives to establish “equality” in the research process. Specifically, those people who participate in the research process should also be the same people who stand to benefit from the research outcomes.
Principle E: Respect for people’s Rights and Dignity
This principle states that each person is valued in the research process and that researchers should take measures to respect and protect participants’ rights, privacy, and welfare
Inclusion Criterion
A participant attribute that is essential to answer the research question.
Exclusion Criterion
Any attribute that would prevent participation because one cannot answer the research question.
International Review Boards (IRB)
Review and assess if a research project will be carried but in a way that is consistent w/ the general ethical principles.
Psychologists Must…
- Protect and promote the welfare of participants
- Avoid doing harm to participants
- Not carry out any studies unless the benefit is greater than the risk
- Seek informed, ongoing, consent
- Ensure Privacy and Confidentiality
Deception
The most controversial ethical issue in human psychological research. Used when knowing the true purpose of the study may affect participants’ natural behaviours. Participants must be debriefed at the end of the research to make known the true purpose of the research and why deception was used.
Descriptive Statistics
Used to summarize data.
Inferential Statistics
Help researchers decide how confident they can be in judging that the results observed are not due to chance.
Mode
The most frequent value.
Median
The value given for the middle data point.
Mean
Average; the centre of a dataset, skewed by outliers.
Range
Describes the difference between the largest and the smallest points in a data (Subtract lowest from highest data value).
Standard Deviation
The spread of data around the mean; sqrt of variance. Low SD means that the data points are closer to the mean. High SD is more variability.
Variance
Average of squared deviation scores; (SD)^2
Skewness
A measurement of the symmetry of a distribution. Positive Skew=Right Skewed; Spread of scores above the mode is greater than that below (right tail is longer). Negative Skew=Left Skewed; Spread of scores below the mode is greater than that above (left tail is longer).
5% Rule
If the probability of an event is less than 5%, we call that a “rare” event. This gives us a guideline to detect differences. 1.64 SD’s away from the mean represent the most extreme 5% of our data.
