Module 2 Overview (Growth and Reproduction) Flashcards
T/F As a cell becomes LARGER, it becomes EASIER to exchange nutrients and wastes effectively across the cell
FALSE!
It becomes more difficult as a result of the SURFACE-AREA TO VOLUME CONNUNDRUM (as a cell INCREASES IN SIZE, its surface area-to-volume ratio DECREASES)
Describe the SURFACE-AREA TO VOLUME ISSUE in relation to BIGGER CELLS
As cells grow BIGGER, it’s important to recognize that it becomes HARDER for the PLASMA MEMBRANE (home of all EXHCHANGES OF WASTES AND NUTRIENTS, OCCURS HERE, ONLY SO MANY CHANNELS) to be able to EXCHANGE THINGS (suface area) in accordance with the growth of the METABOLIC NEEDS AND CAPACITY of the overall cell (volume)
THIS LIMITS CELL SIZE, PLACES AN UPPER LIMIT ON HOW BIG CELLS CAN GET SIMPLY BECAUSE THE LARGER IT GETS, THE LONGER IT TAKES FOR THINGS TO MOVE ACROSS THE CELL
HOW do CELLS circumvent the SUFACE-AREA-TO-VOLUME-ISSUE?
1) SOME cells have LONG/THIN APPENDAGES or SHAPES, increasing the SURFACE AREA RELATIVE TO THE VOLUME OF THE CELL
2) splitting the cell into multipke parts through COMPARTMENTALIZATION featured in MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES that perform specific tasks for the cell (GIVES RISE TO EUKARYOTIC CELLS)
3) MULTICELLULARITY, ORGANISM HAS MANY CELLS with SPECIALIZED FUNCTIONS
WHAT are the FIVE ESSENTIAL PROCESSES that CONTROL DEVELOPMENT and SPECIALIZATION?
1) CELL PROLIFERATION - REPRODUCTION OF CELLS THROUGH MITOSIS, adds MORE CELLS to BODY and makes it LARGER
2) PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH - CERTAIN CELLS need to die AT PRECISE TIMES OF DEVELOPMENT for the betterment of the body as a whole
3) CELL MOVEMENT/DIFFERENTIAL EXPANSION - IN ANIMALS, CELL MOVEMENT, but in PLANTS, DIFF EXPANSION because these CELLS CANNOT MOVE PAST CELL WALL, but can EXPAND TO BEND PLANT
4) INDUCTION - CELL-CELL COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALING ***
5) CELL DIFFERENTIATION - PROCESS BY WHICH CELLS BECOME A SPECIFIC TYPE
WHAT do the FIVE ESSENTIAL PROCESSES for DEVELOPMENT AND SPECIALIZATION come together to DO?
Development of SPECIFIED TISSUE TYPES and MORPHOGENESIS (organism’s body shape)
Describe the REPRODUCTIVE MODE and PROCESS of BUDDING
- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- NEW CELL BUDS or GROWS off of the OLD CELL (HAPPENS WITH A SINGLE CELL BUDDING OFF OLD, or MULTIPLE CELLS BUDDING OFF A LARGER ORGANISM)
Describe the REPRODUCTIVE MODE and PROCESS of FRAGMENTATION
- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- MATURE organisms FRAGEMENTS ITSELF into FRAGMENTS CAPABLE OF BECOMING NEW ORGANISMS
Describe the REPRODUCTIVE MODE and PROCESS of PARTHENOGENESIS
- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- DEVELOPMENT of UNFERTILIZED EGG INTO NEW ORGANISM
Describe the REPRODUCTIVE MODE and PROCESS of POLYEMBRYONY
- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- FERTILIZED EGG SPLITS TO FORM GENETICALLY IDENTICAL CLONES
Describe the REPRODUCTIVE MODE and PROCESS of VEGETATIVE GROWTH
- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- NEW ORGANISM GROWS FROM MERISTEMATIC CELLS WITHOUT SPORES OR GAMETES
What are the THREE STEPS to SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
GAMETOGENESIS: making gametes
MATING: getting gametes together
FERTILIZATION: fusing gametes into one cell
What is the difference between EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FACTORS of CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND DEVELOPMENT?
INTERNAL FACTORS are those that happen within the cell in question, and one such way is through TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS that ditribute themselves ASYMMETRICALLY across daughter cells to encourage certain DIFFERENTIATION
EXTERNAL FACTORS are primarily found through INDUCTION, a form “peer pressure” that occurs between cells where a group of cells SEND OUT SIGNALS that promot cell differentiation for another cell or such
What are the THREE COMMON MODES of INDUCTION?
DIFFUSION - SIGNALS DIFFIUSED OVER TO THE OTHER CELLS, BIND TO RECEPTOR PROTEINS
DIRECT-CONTACT - CELLS BIND WITHT HEIR SURFACE PROTEINS AND EXCHANGE THEIR SIGNALS
GAP-JUNCTION - signals passed through this connector between CELLS KNOWN AS CONNEXON(S)
Describe the THREE METHODS of INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
- CHARACTERISTIC of MANY LAND-BASED ANIMALS and some AQUATIC ANIMALS
1) FERTILIZED EGGS LAID OUTSIDE FEMALE BODY AND DEVELOPS THERE — NOURISHED FROM INTERNAL YOLK
2) EGGS STAY INSIDE FEMALE’S BODY FOR DURATION OF DEVELOPMENT — NOURISHED FROM YOLK STILL AND CHILDREN ARE FULLY DEVELOPED WHEN THEY HATCH
3) FERTILIZED EGGS INSIDE FEMALE, FEDD THROUGH MOTHER’S BLOOD VIA PLACENTA —> OFFSPRING DEVELOPS IN THE BODY AND IS BORN ALIVE
Describe the ADVANTAGES of INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
1) EGG IS PROTECTED FROM DEHYDRATION ON LAND
2) IF EGG IS INSIDE FEMALE, LIMITS PREDATION
3) INCREASES FERTILIZATION POTENTIAL FOR A SPECIFIC MALE (YOU KNOW WHO THE DAD IS)
What is SEXUAL DIMORPHISM?
A result of strong SEXUAL SELECTION AND COMPETITION FOR FEMALE ATTENTION USUALLY —> TRAITS DEVELOP TO DIFFERENTIATE MALE AND FEMALE APPEARANCE —> SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
Describe PARENTAL INVESTMENT
PARENTAL INVESTMENT is a form of ADAPTATION —> ENERGY OR RESOURCES PARENT PROVIDES TO IMPROVE SUCCESS OF OFFSPRING’S SURVIVAL AT THE EXPENSE OF ANOTHER OFFSPRING
Describe DIRECT-MALE COMPETITION (INCLUDING COMMON FORMS)
NEAR ALTERCATIONS between MALES FOR THE ATTENTION OF A MATE —> TYPICALLY OCCURS WHERE A PARTICULAR POTENTIAL WILL ONLY MATE WITH ONE MALE
SOME FORMS:
1) LEKKING: courtship ritual in which males show off to a potential in a group setting
2) COURTSHIP RITUALS: in which males dance or show off for female counterparts
3) MALE-MALE AGGRESSION: males fight to gain female` attention
Describe INTERSEXUAL SELECTION
The process by which FEMALES CHOOSE THE BEST OF THE BEST MALES AS PARTNERS —> LEADS TO SOME “USELESS” SECONDARY TRAITS AT TIMES, can be COSTLY TO MALES (peacock feathers, heavy, hard to run away from predators in a pinch and much more visible)
- RECOGNIZE THOUGH THAT IF THE TRAIT INCREASES THE MALE’S ABILITY TO PRODUCE MORE SUCCESSFUL OFFSPRING, IT STILL IMPROVES BIOLOGICAL FITNESS (despite LOWERING CHANCES FOR SURVIVAL)
Describe INDIRECT MALE COMPETITION (INCLUDING COMMON FORMS)
MALE competition that happens AFTER MATING!
The two PRIMARY FORMS are FIRST MALE ADVANTAGE and SECOND MALE ADVANTAGE!
Describe COMMON MODES of FIRST MALE ADVANTAGE
MATE GUARDING: MALE prevents other MALES form mating with FEMALE AFTER so that his SPERM CAN FERTILIZE HER EGGS
COPULATORY PLUGS: MALE REPRODUCTIVE RESIDUE (what the actual fuck) GETS STUCK, PREVENTS OTHER MALES FROM HAVING SEX WITH FEMALE
Describe COMMON MODES of SECOND MALE ADVANTAGE
ELABORATE PENIS MORPHOLOGY (o it gets even better LMAO): ESSENTIALLY SCRAPES THE REPRODUCTIVE RESIDUE FROM FEMALE???
LARGE EJACULATE VOLUME AND TESTES (NAHHHHH)
WHAT are the DIFFERENCES between POLYANDRY, POLYGYNY, MONOGAMY, AND PROMISCUITY?
https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/sites.gatech.edu/dist/6/1810/files/2021/01/animal-mating-systems.jpg
What is the PURPOSE of a SPERMATHECA? Which SPECIES tend to have it?
Typical of certain INVERTEBRATE SPECIES - mollusks, worms, and insects, the SPERMATHECA is a SPECIALIZED SAC that females have to hold SPERM for EXTENDED PERIODS and they can CHOOSE what SPERM THEY WANT TO USE TO FERTILIZE THEIR EGGS (WILDDD)
What are the MAJOR DIFFERENCES between SPERM and an OVUM (EGG)
SPERM are MOBILE, LOW-COST, and generally PLENTIFUL in comparison to EGGS, which are usually NON-MOTILE, HIGH COST IN TERMS OF ENERGY AND TIME FOR DEVELOPMENT, and LIMITED IN QUANTITY
What is a CLOACA? What SPECIES tend to have this structure?
A CLOACA is common in many BIRD SPECIES (except DUCKS, they have actual PENISES that look like SCREWS OOP)
It is a SINGLE OPENING that allows for major processes to occur, particularly for the CIRCULATORY, EXCRETORY, and REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS - MALES AND FEMALES POSITION THESE OPENING TO ALLOW FOR OPTIMAL TRANSFER OF SPERM FROM MALES TO FEMALES
Where do EGGS go from the OVARY in SPECIES THAT USE INTERNAL PERTILIZATION? What about with SPECIES THAT USE EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION?
For INTERNAL FERTILIZATION, these EGGS travel through the UTERINE TUBES and in EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION, they are released into an AQUEOUS ENVIRONMENT
