Module 2 - How do you view yourself

Question 1

What is symbolic interactionism?

Answer 1

Symbolic interactionism is the theory of how the self emerges from human interaction, which involves people trading symbols (through language and gesture) that are usually consensual and represent abstract properties rather than concrete objects.
(p. 120)

Question 2

What is meant by “the looking glass self”?

Answer 2

The self derived from seeing ourselves as others see us.

p. 121

Question 3

What are self-schemas?

Answer 3

Cognitive structures that represent knowledge about ourselves.
(p. 123)

Question 4

What is self-discrepancy theory?

Answer 4

Higgins’s theory about the consequences of making actual - ideal and actual - ‘ought’ self-comparisons that reveal self-discrepancies. People are motivated to have a match between their actual self and their ideal or ought self. When discrepancies occur, we will be motivated to reduce the discrepancies.
(p. 125)

Question 5

What is the actual self?

Answer 5

How we currently are.

p. 125

Question 6

What is the ought self?

Answer 6

How we think we should be.

p. 125

Question 7

What is the self-assessment motive?

Answer 7

The motivation to seek out new information about ourselves in order to find out what sort of person we really are.
(p. 135)

Question 8

What is the self-verification motive?

Answer 8

The motivation to seek out information that verifies and confirms what we already know about ourselves.
(p. 135)

Question 9

What is the self-enhancement motive?

Answer 9

The motivation to develop and promote a favourable image of the self.
(p. 135)

Question 10

According to Sedikides’ six experiments, which is the strongest motive:

a) the self-assessment motive
b) the self-verification motive
c) the self-enhancement motive?

Answer 10

c) Self-enhancement motive

p. 137

Question 11

What is self-esteem?

Answer 11

Feelings about and evaluations of oneself.

p. 139

Question 12

What are three major sources of threat to one’s self-esteem?

Answer 12

1. Failures.
2. Inconsistencies.
3. Stressors.
   (p. 139)

Question 13

What are the five ways of coping with threats to self-esteem?

Answer 13

1. Escape.
2. Denial.
3. Downplay the threat.
4. Self-expression.
5. Attack the threat.
   (p. 139)

Question 14

What is self-monitoring?

Answer 14

Carefully controlling how we present ourselves. There are situational differences and individual differences in self-monitoring.
(p. 145)

Question 15

What are some attributes associated with high self-esteem?

Answer 15

• Persistent and resilient in the face of failure
• Emotionally and affectively stable
• Less flexible and malleable
• Less easily persuaded and influenced
• No conflict between wanting and obtaining success and approval
• Reacts positively to a happy and successful life
• Thorough, consistent and stable self-concept
• Self-enhancement motivational orientation
  (p. 143)

Question 16

What are some attributes associated with low self-esteem?

Answer 16

• Vulnerable to impact of everyday events
• Wide swings in mood and affect
• Flexible and malleable
• Easily persuaded and influenced
• Want success and approval but are sceptical of them
• Reacts negatively to a happy and successful life
• Sketchy, inconsistent and unstable self-concept
• Self-protective motivational orientation
  (p. 143)

Question 17

What is strategic self-presentation?

Answer 17

Strategic self-presentation is presenting ourselves in a way designed to make a favourable impression: e.g. getting people to like us, think we are competent or do us a favour.
(p. 145)

Question 18

Define the five strategic self-presentation motives identified by Jones and Pittman?

Answer 18

1. Self-promotion.
2. Ingratiation.
3. Intimidation.
4. Exemplification.
5. Supplication.
   (p. 145)

Question 19

Describe a high self-monitoring person?

Answer 19

A high self-monitoring person adopts self-presentation strategies to project the impression they feel their audience or situation demands.
(p. 145)

Question 20

Describe a low self-monitoring person?

Answer 20

A low self-monitoring person uses expressive self-presentation strategies because their behaviour is less responsive to changing contextual demands.
(p. 145)

Question 21

What is expressive self-presentation?

Answer 21

Strategic self-presentation is about manipulating others’ perceptions of you. Expressive self-presentation is the opposite because it involves demonstrating and validating our self-concept through our actions. The focus in ourselves, rather than others.
(p. 146)

Question 22

What is cognition?

Answer 22

The knowledge, beliefs, thoughts and ideas that people have about themselves and their environment. Cognition may also refer to the mental processes through which knowledge is acquired, including perception, memory and thinking.
(p. 156)

Question 23

What is social cognition?

Answer 23

Social cognition focuses on the way in which cognition is affected by wider and more immediate social contexts and on how cognition affects our social behaviour.
(Lecture 2)

Question 24

Asch’s Configuration Model contains which two types of traits?

Answer 24

1. Central traits.
2. Peripheral traits.
   (Lecture 2)

Question 25

In Asch’s Configuration Model, which has more influence:

a) Central traits
b) Peripheral traits?

Answer 25

a) Central traits.

Lecture 2

Question 26

In Asch’s Configuration Model, what are central traits?

Answer 26

Central traits - for example, whether a person is WARM or COLD - are traits that have a disproportionate effect over the impression another person forms of us. This means that because warm/cold is a central trait, whether we are warm or cold will have a big impact on what others think of us.

Question 27

In Asch’s Configuration Model, what are central traits?

Answer 27

Central traits - for example, whether a person is WARM or COLD - are traits that have a disproportionate effect over the impression another person forms of us. This means that because warm/cold is a central trait, whether we are warm or cold will have a big impact on what others think of us.
(Lecture 2)

Question 28

In Asch’s Configuration Model, what are peripheral traits?

Answer 28

Peripheral traits have less influence over impression formation than central traits. An example of a peripheral trait is whether we are blunt or polite.
(Lecture 2)

Question 29

In impression formation, what is the primacy effect?

Answer 29

The traits presented first disproportionately influence the final impression.
(Lecture 2)

Question 30

In impression formation, what is the recency effect?

Answer 30

Can emerge when later information has more impact than earlier information. This means that information we hear recently has more impact on our impression of a person than information we heard earlier.
(Lecture 2)

Question 31

How do positivity and negativity affect impression formation?

Answer 31

In the absence of other information, people tend to form positive impressions. However, if there is any negative information, that has a bigger effect on our final impression. Once formed, negative impressions are more difficult to change.
(Lecture 2)

Question 32

When I met Mary, she formed a positive impression of me. When I met Tom, he formed a negative impression of me. Which person will have more difficulty changing their impression of me?

a) Mary
b) Tom

Answer 32

b) Tom.

This is because negative first impressions are more difficult to change than positive ones.

Question 33

What is the difference between an internal and external attribution?

Answer 33

Internal attributions are characteristics that we think a person possesses internally. For example, we might think that Sam is quiet because he is a quiet person by nature - his quietness is an internal attribution.

In contrast, external attributions are characteristics that depend on the situation. For example, Sam is quiet tonight because he is in a bad mood. The situation (Sam’s mood) determined his quietness, rather than an internal characteristic. – Dispositions (e.g., Sam is a quiet person by nature).
(Lecture 2)

Question 34

What are the three features of Kelley’s covariation model of attribution?

Answer 34

1. Consistency.
2. Distinctiveness.
3. Consensus.
   (Lecture 2)

Question 35

What are the three main dimensions of Weiner’s attributional theory?

Answer 35

1. Locus.
2. Stability.
3. Controllability.
   (Lecture 2)

Question 36

What is an internal locus of control?

Answer 36

If I have an internal locus of control, I believe that I have control of the situation. I believe that I can control the outcome and the outcome depended on me. For example, I did well on the exam because I worked hard and I studied. The outcome (exam performance) was dependent on me (my work and effort).
(Lecture 2)

Question 37

What is an external locus of control?

Answer 37

If I have an external locus of control, I believe that the situation is outside my control. I believe that I cannot control the outcome. For example, I did poorly on the exam because the lecturer is a nasty person who deliberately tried to make it hard for me. The outcome (exam performance) was not dependent on me, it was dependent on external factors (nasty lecturer).
(Lecture 2)

Question 38

What is the fundamental attribution error?

Answer 38

The bias in attributing another’s behaviour more to internal causes than external causes. For example, I believe that you cut me off on the road because you’re an incompetent driver, not that the poor conditions interfered with your driving. The problem was you, not the road/weather.
(Lecture 2)
(p. 95)

Question 39

What is the actor-observer effect?

Answer 39

The tendency to attribute our own behaviours externally and others’ behaviours internally.
For example, you were late because you are a rude, inconsiderate person. I was late because of bad traffic.
(p. 98)

Question 40

What is the false-consensus effect?

Answer 40

Seeing our own behaviour as being more typical than it really is. For example, I yelled at the shop assistant because everybody does that when they get angry.
(p. 99)

Question 41

What is the difference between people with an internal locus of control and those with an external locus of control?

Answer 41

People with an internal locus of control believe they control the outcome of their behaviour. People with an external locus of control believe external forces control the outcome of their behaviour.
(Lecture 2)

Question 42

What is the self-enhancing bias?

Answer 42

We take credit for our positive behaviours and successes as reflecting who we are and our intention and effort to do positive things. For example, I did well on the exam because I’m really smart.
(p. 99)

Question 43

What is the self-protecting bias?

Answer 43

We explain away our negative behaviours and failures as being due to external situation factors over which we had no control. For example, I did badly on the exam because it was unusually difficult and I had a cold.
(p. 100)