Module 2 Exam: Plants Flashcards
What is a disadvantage to the traditional classification system?
does not inform us about evolutionary relationships (close or distant relation)
What type of traits are used for phylogenetics?
morphology, shared derived traits, DNA
What is an evolutionary lineage?
ancestral species and the lines (determine relative time the species has been around)
What is a sister taxa/clade?
two taxa sharing an immediate ancestor, that is NOT shared with anyone else.
What are the aspects of phylogenetic trees?
-alt. forms do not change the way they work
-lineages can rotate around node/branches
How do phylogenetic trees differ from the traditional classification system?
phylogenetic trees use molecular data
What is an assumption of phylogenetics?
more similar morphology and genome = more closely related
How is the rule of parsimony used to interpret evolutionary relationships?
-loss/gain of a new trait is rare
-true relationships have FEWEST # of changes
Why is it imperative that homologous traits are used when creating a phylogenetic tree?
evidence of evolutionary change
Why are analogous traits often important to distinguish?
dorsal fins in sharks and dolphins more likely to come from convergent evolution rather than the loss/gain of that trait over time according to rule of parsinomy
The more evolutionary different two taxonomic units are..
the more dna/genetic diff
-longer period of time since sharing common ancestor allows for more mutations
What is a monophyletic clade?
ancestor and all descendants
Why is it important for classification groupings to also form a monophyletic clade when mapped on a tree?
accurately represents the evolutionary relationships of org.
What is a paraphyletic clade?
ancestor and some descendants
-incorrect classification
-birds should be grouped with reptiles
What is a polyphyletic clade?
no common ancestor, clade takes from two or more diff ancestors
-ex: if birds and mammals grouped together, not evolutionary related
What are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
pro do not have nucleus or membrane bound organelles
What are the three domains of life?
Eukarya
Archaea
Bacteria
What is the current hypothesis regarding the evolution of eukaryotic cells?
evolved from endosymbiosis (symbiotic relationship with prokaryotes)
What are characteristics of eukaryotic cells?
-membrane bound organelles
-nuclear envelope protects genome
-cytoskeleton of microtubules
-inner membrane, DNA presence and ribosome similar to bacteria
When did eukaryotes evolve?
1.8 bya
What are characteristics of protists?
-no single unifying trait
-can be unicellular or multicellular
-energy: photoautotrophs, heterotrophs, and mixotrophs
-repro: both
-all habitats
What are the protist groups?
-excavata
-sar
-unikonta
-archaeplastida
What characterizes the supergroup Excavata?
-unique flagella structure
-most freeliving, some parasitic
-diplomonads and parabasalids have reduced mitochondria
What are the three primary groups of excavata?
-diplomonads
-parabasalids
-euglenozoans
What is an example of diplomonads and paraboloids?
Giardia
What is an example of euglenozoans?
-spinal rod present
-Ex: trypanosoma (A.S.S.)
-Ex: Euglena (mixotropic,eyespot, long flagellum)
What characterizes the supergroup SAR?
-DNA similarities, several traditional clades combine
Do protists form a clade?
No
What are the three primary groups of SAR?
-Stramenophiles
-Alveolates
-Rhizarians
What are characteristics of Stramenophiles?
flagella w/ hair-like projections
What is an example of stramenophiles?
-Diatoms
-Brown Algae
What are characteristics of Diatoms?
-unicellular algae and cell walls of silicia
-main component: phytoplankton
What are characteristics of brown algae?
-largest and most complex
What are characteristics of alveolates?
vesicles enclosed in membranes
What are examples of alveolates?
-Dinoflagellates
-Alecomplexans
-Ciliates
What are dinoflagellates?
-unicellular algae
-2 flagella
-component of phytoplankton
-rapid reproduction (blooms)
What are alecomplexans?
parasitic protists
-ex: plasmodium(malaria)
What are ciliates?
-predatory protists
-cilia used for locomotion
-two nuclei
What are characteristics of Rhizarians?
amoeboid locomotion
-pseudopodia (false foot)
What is an example of rhizarians?
-radiolarians
-forams
What are radiolarians?
-zooplankton
-silicia skeletons
What are forams?
-porous shell
-host to algae symbionts
What are characteristics of Archeaplastids?
chloroplasts surrounded by 2 membranes
-ex: green algae, brown algae, landplants
What organisms are in Unikonta?
-ex: fungus, animals, protists w/ lobe-pseudopods
What is alteration of generations?
haploid and diploid multicellular stages
What is the most abundant group of photosynthetic org in the ocean?
Diatoms and dinoflagellates (SAR) in phytoplankton
What is conjugation?
two cells swap micronuclei, resulting in two separate copies (from meiosis)
What is nuclear fusion?
fusion of nuclei to form diploid micronucleus
Why are plants grouped with green and red algae?
-common ancestor
-algae photosynthetic
-contain chloroplast
When did land plants evolve and what were the evolutionary drivers?
-algae in dry seasons attached to rocky edges and enabled them to survive
-470-500 mya
What is the closest living relative to plants?
Charophye algae
What traits support the hypothesis of charophyte algae being the closest living relative to plants?
-lives along edge of freshwater system
-can tolerate short periods of time out of water
What are the supportive traits found in land plants?
-cell wall
-peroxisome enzyme (supports photosynthesis)
-flagellated sperm structure
-chlorophyll a&b only (green pigments)
-DNA similarities
What are the derived traits?
-alteration of generations
-spores w/ sporopollenin (protection)
-cuticle (wax covering)
-apical meristem
What are the functions of cuticle?
-protect tissues from drying out
-protects from microbes
-stomata allow gas exchange on underside (reduces water loss and increases dry period survival)
What are the three broad groups of plants?
-non-vascular/bryophytes
-seedless vascular plants
-seed plants
What is an example of non-vascular plants?
liverworts, mosses, hornworts
What are the characteristics of non-vascular plants/bryophytes?
-no vessels in plant tissues for water distribution and nutrients
-restricted to wet conditions
What are the male/female parts of bryophytes?
M: antheridia
F: Archegonia
In bryophytes plants the gametophyte is
dominant stage
Bryophyte’s sporophytes are
dependent of the gametophyte
What is an example of seedless vascular plants?
lycophytes/club “mosses” and pterophytes (ferns)
What unique traits evolved in vascular plants?
Roots, shoots, vascular system
Why is a vascular system important?
-Xylem for water from roots
-Phloem for sugar from leaves
- all cells get materials req. for living
What is the male/female part of seedless vascular plants?
M: antheridium
F: archegonium
What is the dominant part of the seedless vascular plant’s lifecycle?
sporophyte
Why are seedless vascular plants important/unique?
left carbonized material humans use for energy in the carboniferous period
Do ferns have reduced gametophytes? how many do they produce?
yes; one
The gametophyte is independent of
the sporophyte
What are the derived traits observed in seed plants?
-heterospores
-gametophytes are microscopic + develop in sporangia, sporophyte nourishes gametophyte
What is a seed plant?
seed composed of embryo, food supply and protective coat
-disperses from parent
Antheridia houses..
male gametophyte microspore
Archegonia houses..
female gametophyte megaspore
What are some characteristics of gymnosperms?
-needle-leaves w/ thick cuticles
-NAKED SEEDS/CONES
-conifer forest (largest carbon sink)
EX: evergreen trees (pines)
What is the ecological benefit of gymnosperms?
provide food and shelter for org
Each scale on cone…
contains ovule
Pollen is dispersed by _____ while seeds are dispersed by ______ in gymnosperms
wind; wind
What are some characteristics of angiosperms?
-fruit/flower producing
-90% of plants
-co-evolved w/ animals
What are ecological benefits to angiosperms?
-pollination for insects/birds
-critical to human agriculture
Pollen is dispersed by _____ while seeds are dispersed by ______ in angiosperms
animals/insects; waste from animals/insects in new area
What are the male and female parts of angiosperms?
M: Stamen producing pollen grains gametophyte
F: Carpel producing egg+endosperm gametophyte
What is unqiue about angiosperms?
double fertilization, sperm cells fertilize egg and central cell to form embryo and endosperm
Endosperm is important because…
it is the food source for endosperm
Seed coat is important because…
protects embryo
What are the organ systems found in plants?
-Shoot
-Root
What are the three organs found in plants?
-Shoot: Stems +Leaves
-Root: Roots
What are the functions of roots?
-anchor for plants
-absorb materials
-allow growth
-stores energy reserves (reproductive season)
-non-photosynthetic
gametophyte
What are characteristics of tap roots?
-vertical growth
-lateral roots that branch off main
-strong anchor
-tall growth
Why are these characteristics important for tap roots?
-grow tall= fav. light conditions, distribution of pollen and seed dispersal
-grow deep= able to reach materials
What are characteristics of fibrous roots?
-lateral roots w/ own lateral roots
-complicated network of roots tangled w/ other’s roots
-thick mat of slender roots
Why are these characteristics important?
thick mats prevent erosion
What are the modified roots?
-Aerial
-strangling
-storage food
-pneumatophores
What are aerial roots?
extend from tree trunk
-prop-roots: support top heavy
-buttress: support large trees (ex: rainfores)
What are strangling roots?
parasitic trees that grow on/around other plants
What are storage food roots?
enlarged to store water or sugars
-tap root modification
What are storage food root examples?
beets and carrots
What are pneumatophores?
-small roots that extend from underground to reach back above ground
-absorbs oxygen from air
-typical in mud substrates
What are the functions of stems?
-growth
-physical support
-increase exposure to sun
-increase dispersal of pollen/seeds
-supports fruit/flowers
-transport fluids
What are nodes and internodes?
nodes: leaf attachment
internodes: segments between leaves
What are the two different types of buds?
-apical
-axillary
What are apical buds?
growth @ the tips of stems
-site that allows:
growth in width/height
apical meristem
-increases overall width/space due to branches/stems getting longer
What are axillary buds?
growth @ nodes
-increases branches on plant
What are the modified stems?
-rhizomes
-stolons
-tubers
What are rhizomes?
-horizontal stem
-grows UNDERGROUND
-asexual repro
-increases nutrient exposure due to spreading out across landscape
What are stolons?
-horizontal stems
-grows ABOVE ground
-asexual repro
-“runners”
ex: strawberry
What are tubers?
-enlarged rhizomes/stolons
-used to store sugars
ex: MOST FOOD/POTATOES
What are the functions of leaves?
-photosynthesis
-gas exchange from stomata
-defense (fine hairs to protect pores + antibiotic properties)
-store water/sugars
-encourage repro
-decomposition/recycle of material
-support + climbing
What are bracts?
colorful leaves to draw in pollinators
What are the two diff types of leaves?
simple: one single leaf coming from from axillary bud
compound: complex, branches off from leaf “stem” w/ no axillary buds
How to determine types of leaves?
look at axillary buds
What are the diff modified leaves?
-tendrils
-spines
-storage
-reproductive
What are tendrils?
-threadlike leaf
-cling+support for climbing
What are spines?
-protection (cacti)
What are storage leaves?
water or sugar
ex: aloe plant
what are reproductive leaves?
-petals / bracts highly modified leaves to attract pollinators
What is vegetative propogation?
plant reproduces asexually by fragmentation + regeneration of vegetative plant parts
-new plant develops from rhizomes or stolons
What are the three plant tissues?
-dermal
-vascular
-ground
What is dermal tissue?
-protective coating (outer)
-herbascous: epidermis (thick layer of cells)
-woody: periderm/bark (multiple layers)
What is vascular tissue?
divided into xylem and phloem to transport water + sugar
What is ground tissue?
-remaining support cells
-pith
-cortex
What is the Pith?
internal to vascular
What is the cortex?
external to vascular
What is apical meristem?
LENGTH
-primary growth
-cells @ tips of roots + shoots go under rapid cell division to create new layers of cells
What is lateral meristem?
THICKNESS/GIRTH
-divided into two sections
-Vascular Cambium:
adds xylem and phloem
-Cork Cambium
adds periderm (bark) on woody plants
What is lateral meristem?
THICKNESS/GIRTH
-divided into two sections
-Vascular Cambium:
adds xylem and phloem
-Cork Cambium
adds periderm (bark) on woody plants
Why is lateral meristem important?
add layer of cells to ensure protection of plant + transport
What are the apical and lateral meristem’s main motive?
work together for proportional growth of plant
Kingdom fungi…
-evolved from unicellular flagellated protists
-shared ancestor w/ animals +chanoflagellates
What is absorbtive heterotrophy?
-secrete digestive enzymes that break down food particles in surrounding env., absorb directly through cell membranes
(typically feed on dead org. and absorb them)
How is this diff from heterotrophy seen in animals?
-animals eat org directly
-fungi use digestive enzymes
What is the general body structure of a fungus?
-mycellium: network of filamentous cells creating complex interwoven body that grows in a substrate
What is hypha?
individual tubular cell walls (chitin-rigid) that create the filaments in mycelia
What is sepetate hypha?
cross-walls (septa) w/ pores separate cells
-MOST FUNGUS
What is coenocytic hypha?
lack septa, continuous mass of cytoplasm w/ freely moving nuclei
-“xenocidic” fungus
What are xenocidic fungus?
fungus w/ coenocytic hypha
-influences how they repro
What is mycorrhizae?
mutualism between fungus + plants
-fungus dev. specialized hypha (Haustoria) to extract nutrients from plants
-fungi provides phosphates, plants provide sugars
What are Haustoria?
specialized hypha used to extract nutrients from plants
How do the Haustoria cells transfer materials from plants?
branched extensions of the hypha (ARBUSCLES) that can transfer materials from plants
What is the predator relationship of fungi?
specialized hypha to feed on living animals
What are the sexual reproductive stages of fungi?
-plasmogamy and karyogamy
-haploid spores (wind/water) grows into mycelia
-hypha from 2 groups come together
What is plasmogamy?
Union of cytoplasm + multiple nuclei (takes same from each ind. hyphen)
-Unit: HETEROKARYOTIC
What is karyogamy?
fusion of nuclei to create diploid zygote
-only diploid part of lifecycle
-meoisis produce haplois spores and get released by wind/rain
What are the asexual reproductive methods?
-mold
-yeast
What is mold?
specialized hypha makes spores via mitosis (RAPID)
What is yeast?
BUDDING via mitosis, small buds on parent cell break off + spread (RAPID)
What are the five groups of fungus?
-Chytrids
-Zoopagomycetes
-Mucoromycetes
-Ascomycetes
-Basidiomycetes
What are chytrids?
-‘most basal group’
-zoospores (flagella)
-aquatic + unicellular
-decomposers
-parasites
-endosymbionts
-can form colonies
What are chytrids?
-‘most basal group’
-zoospores (flagella)
-aquatic + unicellular
-decomposers
-parasites
-endosymbionts
-can form colonies
What are zoopagomycetes?
-parasities animals/other fungi
-cause of summit disease
What are mucoromycetes?
-decomposers
-fast growing via mold spores
-sporangium filled w/ spores
-bread + fruit mold
What are Ascomycetes?
produce “ascocarps” as a fruiting body to hold spores
-includes lichen/green algae & mycorrhizae w/ plants
What are basidiomycetes?
-MOST DIVERSE
-produces basidiocarps (mushrooms) that hold spores
-oldest living species on the planet
What are the valuable ecological roles fungi serve in the environment and across habitats?
-decomposers
-ensure balanced food web
-mutualistic relationship w plants
What are some unique adaptations fungi have that allows them to be so successful?
-parasitize org + can change the behavior of them to increase evolutionary fitness
-flexible repro
-rapid growth (mold/yeast)
The megaspore of a gymnosperm eventually develops into the
female gametophyte
Which feature of plants is responsible for increasing the girth?
lateral meristem
Which of the following enables vegetative reproduction in plants?
tubers, stolon, rhizome
Periderm is made by the
cork cambium
The egg cells of angiosperms are made by the process of
mitosis
When you are eating potatoes and carrots, you’re eating _____ and ___.
stems and roots
Archegonia always produce ______.
one non-motile egg
The brown algae has a unique life cycle that is often described as ‘alternation of generations’. What exactly does this mean?
Multicellular haploid and diploid stages
Plants that have vascular tissue are more versatile than nonvascular plants. The development of vascular tissue enabled plants to _______.
grow taller
Diatoms have cell walls made of
silicia
You are examining a sample of a newly discovered protist and see that it has hairy flagella. This organism is certainly a _______.
stramenophile
Lycophytes are best described as _____.
seedless vascular plants
Mycorrhizae is a specialized co-evolved mutualism between some fungi and plants, one by which each organism depends on for its life. Fungi have specialized structures in the mycelium that penetrate plant root cells. These serve as the conduit for exchanging materials back and forth. What are these structures called?
Haustoria
You are presented with several single-celled organisms, including one thought to belong to the Kingdom Fungi. What unique feature helps you identify the fungus?
Presence of cell walls made of chitin
Karyogamy is ____ and results in the production of a ___.
Fusion of nuclei : diploid zygote
Which clade of fungi include decomposers that can grow quickly through the production of mold spores?
Mucoromycetes
Which of the following is NOT true of fungi?
They tend to be quite small, never reaching sizes bigger than a small dog
What are things true of fungi?
Can be multicellular or unicellular
-Likely evolved from a flagellated protist
-Can be decomposers, predators, and even recyclers
The dominant part of the fungus life cycle is always _____
Haploid
Yeast is actually a specialized reproductive mechanism utilized by some fungi to ______.
reproduce by budding
If you see something with small cilia, what supergroup is it originated from?
Alveolates in SAR
