Module 2 Ethics and Gender

Question 1

What is Eugenics?

Answer 1

the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial
qualities of future generations either physically or mentally. The practice is based on the belief
that health and disease and social and intellectual characteristics, are based upon heredity and
the concept of race.

Question 1

Definition of Morals

Answer 1

The principles which an individual has concerning the distinction
between right and wrong or good and bad. Morals define right & wrong in ways
which may not always be rational

Question 2

Definition of ethics

Answer 2

1. A set of principles (rules made by external sources) that govern a person’s
   behavior and or serve as a Code of Conduct that affects how people make
   decisions and lead their lives. Refers to disciplines and or professions.
   e.g., medical doctors; lawyers; businessmen; accountants
2. Ethics can be viewed as a set of principles which govern our behaviour with
   respect to what is morally good or bad and morally right or wrong –
   acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.
3. A Code of practice that distinguishes between acceptable and unacceptable
   behaviour. e.gs., Nuremburg Trials /Code; The Constitution of a country

Question 3

Nuremberg Code - Ethical Guidelines for Scientific Research

Answer 3

1. Voluntary consent is essential.
2. The results of any experiment must be for the greater good of society.
3. Human experiments should be based on previous animal experimentation.
4. Experiments should be conducted in a manner that will avoid physical / mental suffering
   and injury.
5. No experiments should be conducted if it is believed to cause death or disability.
6. The risks should never exceed the benefits.
7. Adequate facilities should be used to protect subjects.
8. Experiments should be conducted only by qualified scientists.
9. Subjects should be able to end their participation at any time.
10. The scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment when injury or
    disability or death is likely to occur.

Question 4

Fundamental Principles of Ethics

Answer 4

*Autonomy – Respect a person’s freedom to do what is right for them.
*Beneficence – Do good. Provide benefit for all. Greatest good for the greatest
number of people
*Non-Maleficence – Do no harm - Avoid and prevent harming others.
Justice – Provide fairness and equity for all.

Question 5

Ethical concerns during the pandemic

Answer 5

Non-Maleficence:

Resource Allocation: Decisions about allocating scarce resources (such as ventilators, ICU beds, and vaccines) during the pandemic posed ethical dilemmas.Balancing the needs of individual patients while ensuring equitable distribution across the population was challenging1.Triage Decisions: Healthcare professionals faced difficult choices when determining which patients should receive critical care.Prioritizing patients based on severity of illness and likelihood of survival raised non-maleficence concerns2.

Beneficence:
Quality of Care: Ensuring high-quality care for COVID-19 patients was essential.However, overwhelmed healthcare systems and resource shortages compromised the ability to provide optimal care, violating the principle of beneficence2.Vaccine Distribution: The global distribution of COVID-19 vaccines highlighted disparities. Some countries had better access to vaccines, while others faced challenges in securing doses.Ensuring equitable vaccine distribution was a beneficence concern1.

Justice and Fairness:

Health Inequities: The pandemic disproportionately affected vulnerable populations, including racial and ethnic minorities, low-income individuals, and those with pre-existing health conditions.Addressing these disparities and promoting health equity became critical issues1.Access to Testing and Treatment: Ensuring equal access to testing, treatment, and preventive measures (such as masks and social distancing) was essential for justice and fairness.Disparities in access violated this principle1.

Autonomy:

Public Health Measures: Balancing individual autonomy with public health measures (such as lockdowns, travel restrictions, and mask mandates) was challenging.Some argued that these measures infringed upon personal freedoms, while others emphasized their necessity for public well-being1.Informed Consent: Conducting clinical trials and vaccine research required informed consent from participants.Ensuring transparency and respecting autonomy while rapidly developing vaccines was crucial.

Question 6

Some ethical issues

Answer 6

Eugenics- The study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial
qualities of future generations either physically or mentally. The practice is based on the belief
that health and disease and social and intellectual characteristics, are based upon heredity and
the concept of race.
End of life issues- End-of-life issues are often complex moral, ethical, or legal dilemmas, or
a combination of these, regarding a patient’s vital physiologic functions, medical-surgical
prognosis, quality of life, and personal values and beliefs. End-of-life issues facing patients,
family, and caregivers include the following:
- Resuscitation status
- Withholding and withdrawing medical therapies
- Palliative care
- Coma, vegetative state, and brain death
Stem cells- special human cells that can develop into many different cell types. This can
range from muscle cells to brain cells. In some cases, they can also fix damaged tissues.
Researchers believe that stem cell-based therapies may one day be used to treat serious
illnesses such as paralysis and Alzheimer disease. Stem cells are divided into 2 main forms. They
are embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
Assisted Reproductive Technologies
Genetically Modified Foods (GMFs)- Genetic modification is a special set of gene
technology that alters the genetic machinery of such living organisms as animals, plants, or
microorganisms. Combining genes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNA
technology and the resulting organism is said to be ‘Genetically modified (GM)’, ‘Genetically
engineered’ or ‘Transgenic’.
Human Genome Editing- – Genome editing technologies enable scientists to make changes
to DNA of a cell or organism, leading to changes in physical traits, like eye color, and disease
risk
Abortion- the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or
fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or “spontaneous
abortion”