Module 2: Drug habits, cognitive control and neural basis

Question 1

Goal directed drug seeking

Answer 1

drug-seeking behavior is goal-directed when it is based on an expectation (cognitive criterion) and positive (hyper)evaluation (motivational criterion) of the drug

Question 2

The notion that craving drives instrumental drug-seeking behavior is in line with the view that

Answer 2

drug seeking is a goal-directed behavior and the brain of addicts is simply more sensitive to the rewarding value of drugs (vs. natural rewards)

Question 3

within this view, substance abuse can be explained by “goal conflict”

Answer 3

e.g., the conflict between the extremely positive but short them goal of the drug’s rush and/or withdrawal symptoms and the long term goal of HEALTH

Question 4

Habitual drug seeking: the habit account

Answer 4

drug seeking is not always necessarily goal-directed

according to the habit account:
drug seeking initially starts out as goal-directed but becomes increasingly driven by aberrantly strong habits

Question 5

What is the Thorndike’s Law of effect definition of habits

Answer 5

habits are formed when a behavior is followed by reward (positive reinforcement) or by the absence of an expected negative event (negative reinforcement)
- the reward or relief reinforces a stimulus-response (S-R) association between environmental stimuli and behavior

Question 6

what implication does this learned S-R association have

Answer 6

if the stimulus is encountered it can immediately trigger the old behavior, even if one is not particularly motivated towards the outcome.

Question 7

Dual-process theories posit that S-R associations

Answer 7

gradually become dominant after many repetitions, shifting the balance from flexible, goal-directed control towards S-R habits

Question 8

Measuring habits: what paradigm is used

Answer 8

The outcome-devaluation test
- determines whether a certain behavior is goal-directed or habitual (more on this in the lecture)

Phase 1: instrumental learning phase
- a hungry rat is trained to perform a response (pressing a lever) to obtain food in a Skinnerbox

Phase 2: outcome devaluation phase
- rat is removed from Skinnerbox and receives unlimited access to food in another cage (this way the outcome is “devalued” through satiation)

Phase 3: Critical test phase
Rat returns to Skinnerbox and has opportunity to perform the response again.

If response is goal-oriented, then the rat should adjust its behavior to the now devalued reward.

If the response is a habit, then the rat should just perform the response as a normal response to a stimulus (S-R)

Question 9

Phase 3 of the outcome devaluation test is carried out in extinction, what does this mean and why does it need to be done?

Answer 9

it means that when the rats are returned to the Skinnerbox and perform the response again, they do not receive the food reward.

if the test phase is carried out with normal rewards we wouldn’t know if reduced lever pressing is due to habitual responses or goal-directed response.

! in goal directed responses the rat still presses the lever, just at a reduced rate

If we carry it out in extinction then we make sure the animal doesn’t learn new information. It has to rely on what it previously knows through habituated responding or devaluation.

Question 10

why do extinction tests used in the outcome devaluation procedures need to be short?

Answer 10

because if extinction goes on for too long, the response will at some point be completely extinguished

Question 11

habit theory or addiction

Answer 11

drug seeking behavior is initially goal-directed, but becomes habitual after some time

Question 12

3 central ideas to the transition from targeted control to drug habits (Everitt & Robbins)

Answer 12

(1) there are individual differences in the tendency to form dominant habits, and with a strong tendency, the person in question is vulnerable to developing an addiction (or other compulsive behavior)
(2) drugs are extremely strong reinforcers of S-R habits
(3) drugs lead to structural changes in the brain, that lead to a generally stronger tendency to rely on habitual control.

More in lecture

Question 13

Dual-process models

Answer 13

substance abuse is the result of 2 disrupted processes:

1. reinforced automatic/reflexive/impulsive bottom-up processes
   - Pavlovian conditioning
   - formation of instrumental habits
2. weakened top-down cognitive/reflective/executive functions
   - error monitoring
   - decision making
   - impulse control

impaired cognitive control (2) can lead to a fall back on habits (1)

Question 14

What evidence is there for dual-process models?

Answer 14

• Neuroscientific research
• goal-directed actions and habits are driven by different brain systems

(more in lecture and de Wit, 2017)

Question 15

Pavlovian conditioning vs Instrumental/operant conditioning

Answer 15

Pavlovian: change in behavior due to relationship between a CS and a (motivationally relevant) US

Instrumental / operant conditioning: change in behavior due to a relationship between an instrumental response (R) and a motivationally relevant outcome (O)

Question 16

Instrumental behavior can be (2)

Answer 16

Goal-directed or habitual

Question 17

2 criterion for goal-directed behavior

Answer 17

1. Belief criterion
   → Performance is mediated by a representation of the causal relationship between the action and its outcome
2. Desire criterion
   → Performance is mediated by a representation of the current goal or incentive value of the outcome

–> then recreational drug or alcohol seeking can be a goal-directed action
E.g., end of workday -> have a drink and doing this everyday will make it transform into a habit

Question 18

Habit definition

Answer 18

instrumental responses that are triggered by stimuli, and do not depend on the current motivation for the outcome of the behavior

Question 19

Noeal et al. (2011) experiment illustrating the role of habits

Answer 19

1. Participants were randomly assigned to receive popcorn that was (unbeknownst to them) either fresh or stale.
2. On a 7-point scale, participants indicated how frequently in the past they ate popcorn in movie theaters (always / never)
   - this was done to know which participants had a habit of eating popcorn
3. After the movie, the experimenters measured the amount of popcorn eaten by each participant.

Expectation: fresh popcorn is eaten more

Question 20

Neal et al. (2011)

What were the results?

Answer 20

1. ## Those with no habit of eating popcorn were very affected by the state of the popcorn
   • they ate less stale popcorn
2. Those who usually ate popcorn / had a habit of it didn’t pay that much attention to it
   - they ate both stale and fresh
   - behavior wasn’t affected by the desirability of the outcome but by a habit that was dependent on the context, the cinema

Question 21

Neal et al. (2011)

When the experiment was done in a meeting room instead of a cinema, what were the results?

Answer 21

All participants ate more of the fresh popcorn

-> in non-habitual settings, both habitual popcorn-at-cinema eaters and no-popcorn-at-cinema eaters ate less stale popcorn because they were acting goal-directedly vs. in the cinema those with a habit of eating the popcorn were acting out of habit so motivation for outcome becomes less of a determninant of the behavior

Question 22

Thorndike’s law of effect

Answer 22

responses to a situation that are (closely) accompanied by satisfaction will be more firmly connected with the situation

responses to a situation that are accompanied by discomfort will have their connections with that situation weakened

Question 23

Dual-process instrumental action

Answer 23

with behavioral repetition there is a shift from flexible, goal-directed control towards inflexible (efficient), habitual behavior

Question 24

Is addictive behavior goal-directed or habitual?

Answer 24

1. Drugs are often used in a ritualistic manner
   - e.g., going to a bar on a friday night -> habitual
2. ‘Slips of action’ suggest absentminded drug use -> habit
   - e.g., lighting or grabbing a ciagerette even when in a non-smoke area

but these are not the focus of the lecture really

Question 25

# According to Berridge & Robinson Can habits also drive compulsive drug seeking?

Answer 25

No, according to them habits are too simple to explain compulsions * But "wanting" can be compulsive, it's just that habits are not considered a plausible explanation for compulsive drug seeking behavior

Question 26

# Everitt & Robbins Can habits also drive compulsive drug seeking? ## Footnote Remember their names

Answer 26

Yes. **The habit account**: aberrantly strong habits (tgt with impaired cognitive control) mediate the transition from goal-directed, recreational substance use towards *compulsive* substance use

Question 27

Dual-process instrumental action definition #2

Answer 27

Automatic, inflexible behavior may result from strong S-R habit formation and/or from disrupted goal-directed control | goal-directed control goes down while habit formation goes up

Question 28

How does cognitive control go down and how does habit formation go up in dual-process instrumental action?

Answer 28

Cognitive control down: Chronic drug abuse -> neurotoxic effects on PFC -> can lead to decreased goal-directed control + related cognitive control functions Habit formation up: Due to their direct effects on the dopamine system, drugs are strong reinforcers of habit formation

Question 29

Start of development of habitual drug seeking behavior

Answer 29

Initial drug use: craving and goal-directed drug-seeking - PFC, mesolimbic dopamine pathway --> Drug habits: Nigrostriatal dopamine pathway - substantia nigra (SN) -> posterior putamen --> Drug abuse / addiction: Compulsive behavior - PFC dysfunction

Question 30

3 dopamine pathways

Answer 30

* Mesolimbic - VTA -> NAcc * Nigrostriatal - SN -> posterior putamen * Mesocortical - VTA -> PFC

Question 31

Which theory can account for the lower relapse rates in Vietnam soldiers compared to relapse in individuals returning from a drug rehab center where they were treated for heroin use? A.Incentive-sensitization theory B.Habit theory C.Both D.Neither

Answer 31

C. Habit account: stimulus = vietnam response = use/seek heroin - remember that habits are largely also dependent on the context in which they form (e.g., the cinema popcorn experiment), so US environment is not the same as the environment in which drug taking habit occurred anymore Incentive-sensitization account: CS = Vietnam US = Heroin - due to neural sensitization, drug associated cues elicit aberrantly strong "wanting" , and US environment is not a drug-associated cue

Question 32

Who are the authors of the habit theory of addiction? A. Everitt & Robbins B. Leshner & Volkow C. Berridge & Robinson D. Wiers & Field

Answer 32

A.

Question 33

Outcome devaluation paradigm: list the phases and expectations

Answer 33

Phase 1. Instrumental learning phase - learn that pressing a lever gives food reward Phase 2: outcome devaluation - devaluing the outcome (food reward) by satiation (or pairing with LICI induced nausea) - in order to test whether behavior is goal directed or habitual Phase 3: extinction test phase - rat back in Skinnerbox and can perform response again If the response is goal-directed, the rat should be able to immediately adjust and reduce the pressing of lever If the response is habitual then the rat should just keep pressing the lever

Question 34

# Outcome devaluation paradigm Results

Answer 34

in goal-directed behavior, lever pressing was significantly reduced for the devalued outcome in habitual responding, lever pressing remained the same for both valued and devalued outcome

Question 35

# Outcome devaluation paradigm Moderate training vs. extensive training, how does it show in response patterns?

Answer 35

Moderate training: what is typically done in outcome devaluation paradigms - rats able to adjust behavior to be goal-directed after outcome devaluation Extensive training: when rats are repetitively trained to respond in a certain manner - even after outcome is devalued, rats will keep pressing lever -> it has become a habit and is no longer affected by outcome value ! this is called perseveration = continuing the behavior despite changes in outcome value

Question 36

What is the primary reason for conducting the outcome devaluation test in extinction? A. To prevent food waste. B. Otherwise the rats will press so much that they become tired. C. To prevent learning based on the new outcome value. D. Otherwise rats will become satiated.

Answer 36

C. if a behavior is closely followed by discomfort / reward, the behavior is affected into a certain direction Outcome devaluation tests are done in extinction to reveal goal-directed or habitual behavior, because only then can we tell if the rat presses the lever based on what it knows about the outcome, not what it learns during the test.

Question 37

# Outcome devaluation paradigm Repetition

Answer 37

Overtraining leads to insensitivity to outcome devaluation or 'behavioral autonomy'

Question 38

# Outcome devaluation paradigm Context

Answer 38

Insensitivity to outcome devaluation due to overtraining is context specific

Question 39

# Outcome devaluation paradigm: human research 3 experimental phases

Answer 39

1. Instrumental training S1:R1 -> smarties S2:R2 -> fritos 2. Devaluation by satiation - half receive smarties and half receive fritos 3. Extinction test additional note: participants divided into moderate training groups (2 sessions in 1 day) and extensive training groups (12 sessions in 3 consecutive days)

Question 40

# Outcome devaluation paradigm: human research Results for both moderate training group and extensive training group

Answer 40

1. Devaluation effect shown in moderate training 2. Habit formation in extensive training group - response is retained even after outcome is devalued - these results not as convincing as the animal paradigm,

Question 41

Neural dual pathways: functional homologue

Answer 41

humans and rats have similar structures in the brain --> rats can give us insight into human psychology

Question 42

animal research has shown that lesions to the _ disrupt habit formations

Answer 42

nigrostriatal dopamine pathway (SNc - striatum)

Question 43

# Neural dual pathways: correlational research in humans Through outcome devaluation paradigm, what brain area was found to be associated with goal-directed control

Answer 43

choices for the valued outcome were associated with activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC; partly overlapping with orbitofrontal cortex; OFC) **-> this area important for goal-directive control ! **

Question 44

# Neural dual pathways: correlational research in humans Through outcome devaluation paradigm with an 'extensive training' group, what brain area was found to be associated with habit formation?

Answer 44

after over-training (in order to see habit formation) an increase in activity was observed in the posterior putamen

Question 45

# Neural dual pathways neuroimaging research in humans suggest that

Answer 45

just like in animals - corticostriatal circuits are crucial for the balance between goal-directed and habitual control

Question 46

# neural dual pathways which areas in humans are implicated in goal-directed control?

Answer 46

1. ventromedial prefrontal cortex overlapping with the orbitofrontal cortex - cortical 2. Caudate - subcortical

Question 47

# Neural dual pathways which areas in humans are implicated in habitual control?

Answer 47

1. Premotor cortex - cortical 2. posterior putamen - subcortical

Question 48

why are brain areas associated with goal-directed and habitual control important to know?

Answer 48

understanding the neurobiology of the transdiagnostic factor, impulsivity, is important -> we want to focus on the transdiagnostic factor of compulsivity

Question 49

# Neural dual pathways Evidence for the neural dual pathways

Answer 49

* Both lesioning studies in animals and neuroimaging studies in humans support the dual-process view (on instrumental action control), but animal research provides the strongest support: – Causal evidence (as opposed to correlational) – Challenge of capturing habits experimentally in humans (e.g., de Wit et al. (2018) could not replicate the over-training effect in humans) – Findings more consistent (animal lesioning > human neuroimaging)

Question 50

Which subcortical brain region has been most strongly implicated in goal-directed action? A. (Posterior) putamen B. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex C. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex D. Caudate

Answer 50

D. it is indeed a subcortical brain structure

Question 51

What paradigm can be used to determine whether drug seeking is habitual or goal-directed? A. Progressive ratio paradigm B. Pavlovian conditioned approach paradigm C. Outcome-devaluation paradigm D. Reinstatement paradigm

Answer 51

C. if you didn't know this its looking bad

Question 52

# Research into drug habits Indirect evidence for drug habits **cue reactivity**

Answer 52

cue reactivity neuroimaging fMRI studies show that pics of drugs/alcohol activate the striatal habit region (dorsal striatum) -> this can indicate the activation of a habit additionally when cocaine-addicted subjects are shown a video with cocaine cues during PET scanning, this leads to dopamine activity in the striatal habit region

Question 53

Indirect evidence for drug habits: **self report**

Answer 53

self report habit index: assessing habitual marijuana, alcohol, e-cigarette and cigarette use * SRHI scores predict behavioral frequency of using each substance * but the self-report measure relies on ability to reflect upon controllability and automaticity of drug seeking so analyzing experimental research may better inform us

Question 54

# Corbit et al. 2012 1. Does drug seeking become habitual with repetition? And is this reflected in the neural basis?

Answer 54

1. Rats divided into short-training (2 weeks) or long-training (8 weeks) - within each training group, half receive cannulae implanted in dorsomedial striatum (DMS) and the other half in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) - in animals DMS = goal-directed control - in animals DLS = habitual control 2. instrumental training: lever pressing -> alcohol 3. alcohol devaluation through satiation 4. extinction test the GABA-agonist muscimol could be injected through the cannulae (immediately prior to the test) resulting in temporary inactivation of the DMS / DLS -> done to test which regions are necessary for goal-directed or habitual control

Question 55

# Corbit et al. 2012 1) Does drug seeking become habitual with repetition? And is this reflected in the neural basis? Results + interpretation

Answer 55

The study by Corbit et al. (’12) supports the idea that there is a transition from goal-directed alcohol-seeking behavior to a habit that is insensitive to devaluation. -after extended training, rats continued pressing even when alcohol was devalued -> behavior had become a habit - also reflected in neural basis: inactivating dorsomedial striatum (DMS) disrupts goal-directed behavior & inactivating the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) disrupted habitual behavior and made rats act more goal-directed again

Question 56

# Dickinson, Wood & Smith (2002) 2) Is habit formation accelerated for drug rewards relative to natural rewards? paradigm, results, and interpretation of results

Answer 56

Paradigm 1. instrumental training - pressing -> alcohol - pressing -> food pellets 2. devaluation by pairing with LiCi -> nausea 3. extinction Results: devaluation of food pellets -> more reduced lever pressing than devaluation of alcohol Interpretation: habit formation is accelerated and stronger for drugs

Question 57

# Fabulous fruits game 3) Does substance abuse lead to a general tendency to fall back on rigid habits?

Answer 57

based on instrumental discriminative training: (1) e.g., Grapes signal: pressing left key will give you an orange pic and points Coconut signal: pressing right key will give you a banana pic and points --> people start building S-R associations or goal-directed behaviors (2) Devaluation phase: instruction to devaluation e.g., banana picture no longer comes with a reward -> then you need to **not** press the right key on the coconut signal because the coconut results in a banana picture (3) test phase: slips of action test - Designed to induce slips of action because there is a time pressure to either withold or execute a learned response - Coconutt is a no-go trial because it signals a banana that is not valuable anymore No feedback during test, but participants know they are losing points -> preventing extinction The idea: if the behavior is habitual -> you should just ignore the no-go trials and execute the learned behavior

Question 58

# Ersche et al. (2016) & Sjoerds et al. (2013) Ersche et al.; Slips-of-action task (with animal pictures instead of fruit pictures) to investigate habit tendency in people with a cocaine addiction Sjoerds et al.; used a similar outcome devaluation task to provide evidence for habit tendency in individuals with a history of alcohol abuse

Answer 58

both studies show addicts to have a relatively strong (general) habit tendency - e.g., cocaine addicted group kept responding for the devalued outcome - could be due to strong habit formation, weak goal-directed control or a combination of both Is habit tendency a consequence of drug use or a vulnerability factor?

Question 59

# Pelloux, Everitt & Dickinson (2007) 4. Are drug habits compulsive? procedure and results

Answer 59

*Rats were trained to self-administer cocaine (via direct intravenous administration). *In the next stage, lever pressing occasionally led to an electric shock (while most of the time, lever presses were still rewarded with cocaine). Results: 1. after moderate training, punishment led to less drug seeking behavior 2. after extensive training, a subgroup of rats continued to work for cocaine *even when they received electric shocks* - As in humans, this addiction-like behavior was present only in a small proportion of subjects using cocaine (~20%) and was predictive of relapse (or reinstatement) after withdrawal

Question 60

Critical notes: animal research into drug habits

Answer 60

1. impoverished context - rats extensively trained to self administer cocaine readily forego the drug if offered a sweet solution as an alternative (also for other drugs and alcohol) - a lack of social play early in life in animal increases the motivation to take addictive substances in adulthood (interaction with fellow rat = protextive against addiction-like behaviors) 2. animal models fail to capture unique capacity for language and long-term goals in humans

Question 61

Critical notes: human research into drug habits

Answer 61

* Limits to existing experimental models of habits in humans. * Challenge of interpreting self-report: --> While many people describe their drug compulsion as a habit, others report that their behavior is driven by craving rather than habits. * Alcohol/substance abuse can give rise to cognitive dissonance. This is experienced as an unpleasant tension due to conflict between one’s beliefs and conflicting behavior. --> Cognitive dissonance can lead to post-hoc rationalizing of one’s behavior (e.g., in terms of craving). --> Tendency to go for motivational accounts when post-hoc rationalizing behavior (vs. habitual accounts)

Question 62

From goal-directed drug seeking towards a compulsive habit

Answer 62

* Drugs as potent reinforcers * Impaired cognitive control functions in addiction may increase reliance on habits * Stress and sleep deprivation have been shown to increase reliance on habits

Question 63

What is the broad definition of 'goal-directed' in behavioral neuroscience?

Answer 63

Behaviors that involve some form of planning, inhibition, or other higher-order cognitive functions. ## Footnote This includes prefrontal cortex involvement.

Question 64

What are 'instrumental behaviors'?

Answer 64

Behaviors learned as a consequence of a causal relationship between the action (R) and its outcome (O). ## Footnote This is opposed to behaviors controlled purely by predictive Pavlovian relationships.

Question 65

What is the Belief criterion in goal-directed actions?

Answer 65

Goal-directed actions are mediated by knowledge of the causal action–outcome relationship.

Question 66

What does the Desire criterion state regarding goal-directed actions?

Answer 66

Goal-directed actions are executed only when the outcome is currently desirable.

Question 67

What example illustrates a goal-directed action?

Answer 67

Buying popcorn when one desires the taste and believes that buying it is necessary to achieve this.

Question 68

In associative learning terms, what is a prerequisite for goal-directed action?

Answer 68

Encoding the causal R -> O relationship in an R-O association.

Question 69

What happens when a goal-directed action is repeatedly performed?

Answer 69

It can gradually turn into a habit, triggered by contextual stimuli

Question 70

What is an example of an absent-minded behavior related to habits?

Answer 70

Buying popcorn at the cinema even when already fully sated

Question 71

What does the law of effect account for?

Answer 71

The incremental development of habits

Question 72

What is the consequence of omitting a dreaded aversive event?

Answer 72

It may strengthen the S-R link

Question 73

What weakens the S-R association?

Answer 73

The occurrence of an aversive outcome or cancellation of an anticipated reward

Question 74

What is the defining difference between habits and goal-directed actions?

Answer 74

Only goal-directed actions are mediated by knowledge of the R-->O relationship habits are executed often without the knowledge of an outcome (O)

Question 75

How are habits described in relation to behavior?

Answer 75

Behaviorally autonomous of the current desirability of the outcome

Question 76

What is considered an adaptive value of habits?

Answer 76

They can be executed fast and efficiently

Question 77

Advantage / adaptive value of habits

Answer 77

can be executed fast and in an efficient manner

Question 78

What advantage does habit formation provide regarding cognitive resources?

Answer 78

It frees up cognitive resources to attend to other important matters

Question 79

Meta-analyses support the notion that frequent repetition leads to

Answer 79

a shift from goal-directed control towards habit -> by showing that behavioral intentions are a weak predictor of actions that are performed frequently (wearing a seatbelt) than those that are performed rarely (course enrolment)

Question 80

What role do habits play in the ‘intention‐behaviour gap’?

Answer 80

Habits moderate the strength of the relation between behavioural intentions and actual behaviour

Question 81

In line with the law of effect, social psychologists also found evidence that habits are

Answer 81

Contextually dependent

Question 82

What hypothesis explains how old S‐R habits can be disrupted?

Answer 82

Habit discontinuity hypothesis: old S-R habits can be disrupted bu a change in context, providing a window of opportunity for adapting behavior in light of one's goals

Question 83

What is an interpretative issue associated with diary studies on habits?

Answer 83

Goal pursuit and behavioural repetition are heavily intertwined - e.g., Person A has been snacking unhealthily for a long time while person B has not. Both want to stop, but Person A keeps failing. Person A might fail because their habit is stronger? Maybe. But alternative explanations include: Person A simply enjoys or craves snacks more than B (stronger motivation). Person A might be in environments where snacks are more available or socially encouraged. --> these factors can mimic what looks like a strong habit ## Footnote This complicates understanding the relationship between these two factors.

Question 84

What is the standard experimental test of goal‐directed versus habitual action control?

Answer 84

Outcome‐revaluation test ## Footnote This test is used to differentiate between goal-directed actions and habitual responses.

Question 85

# Outcome revaluation studies in animals What procedure was developed to test goal-directed action in rats?

Answer 85

Outcome‐revaluation procedure: hungry rats train to press a lever for food (contingent) + another type of food pellet is given independent of lever pressing (noncontingent, which serves as a control group)

Question 86

# Outcome revaluation studies in animals What was one problem associated with the way that goal-directed behavior was first measured in rats?

Answer 86

rats’ ability to rapidly learn to respond for food when hungry could equally well be supported by a simple S‐R reinforcement mechanism instead of being purely goal-directed -> here we are interested in goal-directed responses and not reinforced S-R habits so we need a way to somehow distinguish those two

Question 87

# Outcome revaluation studies in animals how was this solved? + expectations

Answer 87

solution: condition an aversion (LiCl induced nausea) to the contingent food pellets and test in extinction for one group of rats (this is outcome devaluation) importantly also condition the aversion to the noncontingent food pellet and then test in extinction for another groups of rats -> rats in the devalued contingent group should learn that reward is devalued, hence goal-directed response is to press the lever less -> rats in the devalued noncontingent group should have no difference in lever pressing because the noncontingent food pellets are unrelated to lever pressing (noncontingent food pellets were given independent of lever pressing

Question 88

# Outcome revaluation studies in animals What were the results?

Answer 88

Rats pressed less if the contingent outcome had been devalued = they are capable of goal-directed behavior

Question 89

# Outcome revaluation studies in animals extensive overtraining had what kind of effect on rats?

Answer 89

diminished the effect of devaluation = rats kept on pressing lever for food that had been devalued after extensive training to press the lever

Question 90

Through overtraining the rats it was shown that once a habit forms it is

Answer 90

independent of the outcome desirability = this is called behavioral autonomy - the habit is still constrained to the learning context (reflecting the Law of Effect)

Question 91

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans how was the experimental outcome-revaluation paradigm translated to the field of human psychology , paradigm + results

Answer 91

1) participants choose between 2 icons - one paired w/ low probability of orange juice - one paired w/ high probability of chocolate milk or tomato juice 2) devaluation through satiation to one of the high probability drinks Results: satiation on one of the high probability drinks reduced responding for that outcome - For example, drinking chocolate milk to satiety reduced responding for chocolate milk relative to tomato juice.

Question 92

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans Another way to devalue in human research is

Answer 92

instructed devaluation - e.g., explicitly telling participants that a certain outcome is devalued because it no longer earns the participant points and/or financial credits

Question 93

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans What is one concern with instructed devaluing

Answer 93

symbolic outcomes (and instructed devaluation) fail to engage the basic learning mechanisms that we have evolved to optimise like the pursuit of biologically relevant events like food + to some extent mitigated by neuroscientific investigations that show the same neural substrates underlie responses to natural and symbolic reinforcers

Question 94

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans Instructed devaluation is used in the fabulous fruits game, explain paradigm and what it fails to test

Answer 94

1. participants see a discriminative fruit icon (orange) and press keys (right) in order to gain another fruit icon (cherries) and points 2. now they are instructed that some of the fruits appearing after a key press (cherries) are not valuable anymore. 3. testing participants by removing the cue fruits like (oranges). -> when shown icons of cherries and pears, goal-directed control would be evident in preferential pressing on the left key to choose the still-valuable pear instead of devalued cherries by pressing the right key Because cues (S) are removed, we cannot test for habits. The Fabulous Fruits game only tests for goal-directed responding

Question 95

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans test is carried out in extinction, how do researchers achieve this, and how do healthy participants perform?

Answer 95

nominal extinction: participants no longer receive feedback but are informed that they are still earning points and that their total score will be revealed at the end healthy participants unsuprisingly perform well in a goal-directed manner

Question 96

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans To allow S-R associations to compete with R-O goal-directed control, what test was developed and what is it inspired by

Answer 96

the slips-of-action test inspired by slips of action/habit intrusions - e.g., contextual stimuli triggers you to perform a habitual response even when ultimate outcome is not in line with current intentions

Question 97

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans how are slips of actions modelled in the adjusted fabulous fruits game?

Answer 97

following the initial discrimination training in the fabulous fruits game: 2. participants instructed that MOST fruit outcomes are still valuable but some are devalued 3. During nominal extinction, participants shown discriminative stimuli in rapid succession In order to perform well, participants need to have knowledge of the outcomes of their actions -> but now S-R associations may interfere as discriminative stimuli trigger learnt responses independent of sudden changes in outcome value

Question 98

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans again, what did the popcorn experiment tell us about habits?

Answer 98

that habits become linked to contextual stimuli

Question 99

# Outcome revaluation studies in humans Tricomi et al., 2009 experiment provided strong evidence that

Answer 99

behavioral autonomy is a consequence of extensive repetition -> moderately trained people were sensitive to current outcome value while extensively trained group were unaffected by current outcome desirability

Question 100

# Neurobiolody of action & habit neural basis of goal-directed/habitual status of instrumental action in animals has been uncovered by

Answer 100

studying effect of lesions and pharmacological manipulations

Question 101

# Neurobiolody of action & habit Which brain areas are implicated in goal-directed control in animals

Answer 101

prelimbic cortex crucially involved in R-O learning process underlying goal-directed action both pre‐ and post‐training lesions of the dorsomedial striatum disrupt goal‐directed performance, implicating this subcortical area in both the acquisition and expression of goal‐directed action -> long term storage of R-O associations

Question 102

# Neurobiology of action and habit Which brain areas are implicated in habits in animals

Answer 102

* dorsolateral striatum, when lesioned, disrupted formation of habits -> furthermore when the DLS is temporarily inactivated, habitual responding became goal-directed again * infralimbic cortex

Question 103

# Neural basis of action and habit what does it mean that inactivating the DLS in animals makes their behavior goal-directed again?

Answer 103

That R-O associations underlying goal-directed action remain to some extent intact following extensive training -> they may just be overtaken by the strong S-R habits

Question 104

# Neural basis of action and habit which areas are associated with goal-directed action in humans as revealed by fMRI scans?

Answer 104

ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) / medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC) -> vmPFC overlaps with mOFC

Question 105

# Neural basis of action and habit individual differences in the pathways corresponding to goal-directed or habit responding can theoretically

Answer 105

bias someone to be more of a 'creature of habit' or generally more goal directed

Question 106

# Neural basis of action and habit What is the characteristic in brains of those who performed better in the slips-of-action test?

Answer 106

strong estimated white-matter connectivity between vmPFC and caudate

Question 107

# Neural basis of action and habit Strong connectivity between what areas was negatively correlated with performance in the slips-of-action test?

Answer 107

premotor cortex and posterior putamen -> indicating they are important for habit formation

Question 108

# Neural basis of action and habit neuroscientific investigations here therefore show evidence for

Answer 108

a neural dual-system architecture

Question 109

# Clinical relevance formation of S-R habits can contribute to _ in clinical settings

Answer 109

treatment resistance because frequently performed maladaptive behaviors have become habits

Question 110

# Clinical relevance: addiction How can S-R associations contribute to addiction

Answer 110

highly rewarding effect of drugs can lead to the formation of strong S‐R associations, such that goal‐directed drug seeking rapidly transits into stimulus‐driven compulsive drug‐seeking habits

Question 111

# Clinical relevance: addiction additionally what has been proposed to underlie impaired goal-directed and inhibitory control

Answer 111

weak prefrontal functioning -> but little research addressing this in humans

Question 112

# Clinical relevance: addiction What brain areas have been shown to be associated in addicted individuals when partaking in the fabulous fruit game?

Answer 112

1. less activity in vmPFC during learning 2. more activity in posterior putamen --> less activity in vmPFC and more activity in posterior putamen may suggest tendency for easy habit formation

Question 113

# Clinical relevance: addiction role of PFC in decreased goal-directed and inhibitory control in addiction

Answer 113

1. weak PFC functioning is a vulnerability factor 2. weak PFC functioning also a consequence of prolonged drug use

Question 114

# Clinical relevance: ocd OCD and outcome value evaluation

Answer 114

individuals with OCD had an impaired ability to direct their responses towards still valuable outcomes and away from devalued ones.

Question 115

# Clinical relevance: ocd how was habit learning investigated in OCD

Answer 115

shock avoidance paradigm: 1. mild shocks to left and right wrist avoided by pressing food pedals on corresponding side 2. threats of shocks removed after extensive training, OCD but not healthy controls continued to press to avoid the 'devalued' shocks

Question 116

# Clinical relevance: Obesity and eating disorders outcome devaluation study with obese participants

Answer 116

trained obese and lean men to press keys for 2 snack rewards. Then devalue one through satiety. reduction in response was negatively related to BMI --> obese individuals may show accelerated habit formation similar results shown in animal research: rats on binge-like diet fail to adjust their performance

Question 117

# Habit as a Transdiagnostic Compulsive Trait in addition to drug abuse, OCD and eating disorders, habit learning and habit propensity also plays a role in

Answer 117

1. Tourette's syndrome 2. healthy aging 3. Parkinson's disease 4. treatment response in social anxiety disorder 5. Schizophrenia

Question 118

# Habit as a Transdiagnostic Compulsive Trait what other factor plays a mediating role in the observed deficits in patients?

Answer 118

Stress, chronic and acute

Question 119

# An integrative approach what do the authors mean when they say that we need an integrative approach?

Answer 119

research from separate but parallel fields (social psychology, experimental psychology, and behavioral neuroscience) could be integrated to allow for a fuller understanding of the role of habit in decision making

Question 120

# An integrative approach What is a challenge for future research?

Answer 120

integrate research into inflexibility of habits (assessed in oucome-revaluation procedures) with efficiency or extensively trained behavior to understand how these two aspects are interrelated

Question 121

# habit interventions habits require less cognitive effort and attention than goal-directed action, what should the focus of interventions be

Answer 121

to try to turn a desired behavior into a habit --> requires repetition in a stable environment/context and a clear 'if-then' plan

Question 122

# habit interventions how can old habits be targeted in interventions

Answer 122

remove contextual cues that are associated with an old, underisable habit

Question 123

# habit interventions what is an R-R habit and how can it be useful in intervention?

Answer 123

Response 1 triggering another response 2 - e.g., capitalizing on an existing habit of brushing teeth by starting a flossing habit after that firmly established habit

Question 124

Tricomi et al's study is about

Answer 124

how extensive training on a free-operant task reduces sensitivity of participants' behavior to a reduction in outcome value and the neural correlate

Question 125

describe procedure

Answer 125

1) participants are trained either two 8-minute sessions on one day or four training sessions each day for three days 2) Fractal image shown on screen indicating which button to press - after each button press either a gray circle briefly appeared (50 ms), indicating no reward, or a picture of the specific food reward (M&M's or Fritos) 3) One of the 2 foods devalued through selective satiation - eat until you cant 4) Participants placed into extinction test

Question 126

Key findings: between experimental groups

Answer 126

Key1-day group: Reduced responding for devalued food = goal-directed 3-day group: No reduction = habitual, outcome-insensitive Shows shift from goal-directed to habitual behavior with training

Question 127

Key findings: brain activity

Answer 127

* Posterior DLS (right posterior putamen): --> Increasing activation over time with stimulus presentation --> Suggests involvement in stimulus-response (S-R) habit learning * Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (vmPFC): --> Showed ramping activity with reward anticipation --> Did not diminish with habit learning → remains active even if behavior becomes habitual * Nucleus Accumbens: --> Responded consistently to rewards across training --> Suggests continued valuation of outcomes, even when behavior is habitual

Question 128

Interpretation of findings

Answer 128

* Habit learning is gradual, not an abrupt switch. * DLS activity builds up over time and eventually dominates behavior. * Goal-directed systems remain active, but may be overridden by habit systems with overtraining. * Human habits can form similarly to animal models, confirming neural overlap with rodent studies.

Question 129

which other regions in. the cortex show a significant increase in sensitivity to the task-relevant fractals over course of training?

Answer 129

- temporal cortex