Module 2 Flashcards
What are the basic cells of the brain and nervous system?
Neurons and Glial cells
Which cells of the brain carry messages throughout the nervous system?
Neurons
An ____ ____ is the wave of ____ ____ that shoots down the ____ of the neuron where there is sufficient stimulation.
action potential
electrical excitation
axon
An ____ is a long cable like structure of the neuron that ____ waves of ____ ____ .
Axon
transmits
chemical excitation
The ____ ____ is at the beginning of the axon where small ____ ____ are gathered and trigger an ____ ____ if there is enough of an impulse.
axon hillock
excitatory impulses
action potential
An ____ ____ is part of the neuron where ____ are released.
axon terminal
neurotransmitters
A ____ is a branchlike structure of the neuron that ____ signals from other neurons and pass along that ____ ____ .
dendrite
receives
electrical excitement
____ cells are brain cells that wrap around the ____ axons providing ____ and increasing efficiency.
glial
neuronal
insulation
The ____ ____ is ____ (made from glial cells) that wraps around the ____ of a neuron.
glial cells
insulation
axon
____ ____ is the process by which neurons that are not used are discared.
neural pruning
____ are the main cells of the brain that carry ____ from one part of the ____ system to another.
neurons
messages
nervous
A ____ is the space between neurons.
synapse
The ____ level is the amount of energy required to trigger an ____ ____ .
threshold
action potential
Neurons are specialized cells to carry ____ through an ____ process called an ____ ____ .
messages
electrochemical
action potential
Neurons differ from other cells because they have specialized extensions called ____ .
dendrites
What receives information in a neuron?
dendrites
What transmits the information from the dendrites?
axons
Dendrites receive signals from other neurons in the from of ____ energy and ____ them.
electrical
transmit
Are the signals from other neurons strong or weak? Why?
Weak, because there isn’t enough energy by themselves to cross the threshold. They will dissipate
If enough energy is gathered at the ____ ____ to go over the threshold, an ____ ____ is generated.
axon hillock
action potential
An action potential is a ____ of ____ ____ that shoots down the ____ and it keeps getting ____ as it goes.
wave of electrical excitation
axon
regenerated
The action potential is what is needed to ____ the message along until it reaches the end of ____ , the ____ ____ .
transmit
axon
axon terminal
Neurons have a space between them called a ____ .
Synapse
The ____ ____ can not cross the ____ , so this wave of ____ and ____ has to be passed by ____ messengers called ____ .
action potential synapse electricity excitement chemical neurotransmitters
Myelin is made of ____ cells.
glial
Neurons can not transmit messages efficiently and effectively until they have become ____ .
myelinated
The release of ____ from a neuron translates the ____ “language” of the neuron to a ____ message.
neurotransmitters
electrical
chemical
Neurotransmitters effect ____ , ____ , and ____ .
emotion
movement
cognition
____ ____ are the precursors for transmitters and can be used to construct neurotransmitters
amino acids
The ____ ____ is the part of the axon from which neurotransmitters are released .
axon terminal
____ ____ are neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood that the next neuron will have an action potential.
excitatory neurotransmitters
____ ____ are neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood that the next neuron will have an action potential.
inhibitory transmitters
____ is a chemical messenger released from the axon terminal of one neuron to cross the synapse and bind with the receptor on the next neuron.
neurotransmitter
____ are the area of the neuron where the neurotransmitter binds and its shape is specific for certain types of neurotransmitters.
receptors
____ is the space between two neurons.
synapse
Neurotransmitters transmit ____ information across the ____ between neurons.
chemical
synapse
Neurotransmitters are released from one ____ into the ____ , and they bind with ____ on another ____ .
neuron
synapse
receptors
neuron
The second neuron translates this ____ signal back to an ____ one to ____ the next neuron.
chemical
electrical
activate
Neurotransmitters ____ the electrical signals of the ____ ____ that passes down the neuron into a ____ language that can ____ with the next neuron.
translate
action potential
chemical
communicate
Neurotransmitters are either ____ back to where they were generated or they are ____ ____ by enzymes.
recycled
broken down
Neurotransmitters play a key role in ____ information, and because they do, they affect everything from how we ____ information coming into us, to our ____ , and ____ .
transmitting
interpret
moods
emotions
The way neurotransmitters affect us has to do with how much a given neurotransmitter is ____ , how ____ it remains in the ____ before it is recycled or broken down, and how it is able to ____ with the ____ on the neuron receiving the ____ .
released long synapse bind receptor information
Changes in the amount of neurotransmitter released changes the ____ of the signal that crosses the ____ .
strength
synapse
Changes in the number and sensitivity of the ____ of the neuron receiving the information also changes the strength of ____ across the synapse.
receptors
signaling
What are the chemicals that are used by neurons to communicate with each other?
Neurotransmitters
What has the profound affects on the way we function: differences in the amounts of ____ released, amounts of ____ they stay in the ____ , or the way the are able to ____ to ____ in the next neuron.
chemicals time synapse bind receptors
Neurons transmit information by way of an ____ ____ .
action potential
When you learn something new, communication across the ____ becomes easier.
synapses
Learning is about changes in ____ ____ , and memory is about those changes ____ for the long ____ .
synaptic communication
lasting
term
When learning occurs, the old ____ is changed to become more ____ and ____ , and that learning is the process of ____ the ____ ____ .
synapse sensitive efficient strengthening synaptic connections
The ____ is the brain region that plays a central role in aggression and fear.
amygdala
The ____ is the brain region that also plays a central role in learning and memory.
cortex
____ is a neurotransmitter with critical roles in learning and memory.
glutamate
The ____ is a brain region that plays a central role in learning and memory.
hippocampus
____ ____ ____ is the strength of the communication between two neurons that become enhanced under certain conditions and it is easier to activate.
Long term potentiation
____ is the synapse between neurons becomes hyper-responsive after a dense cluster of rapid action potentials.
potentiation
Synaptic communication is strengthened through experiences by a process called ____ ____ ____ .
Long term potentiation
When dendrites are stimulated by a series of rapid fire ____ ____ , the ____ becomes hyper ____ or more easily ____ . This is called ____ which means that the pathway between the neurons will be ____ , and that means a single neuron will more likely be table to cause an ____ ____ .
action potentials synapse responsive stimulated potentiation stronger action potential
In this model of learning, when the neuron experiences a series of rapid fire ____ ____ , the ____ becomes much more ____ and ____ between neurons becomes easier and the neural pathway is ____ on a long term basis.
action potentials synapse responsive communication strengthened
Long term potentiation occurs because ____ is released into ____ , and the ____ is a simple neurotransmitter with a critical role in ____ and ____
glutamate synapses glutamate learning memory
The structure of glutamate is different from that of other neurotransmitters, and it works in concert with ____ to change how readily an ____ ____ is transmitted.
calcium
electrical impulse
Repeated use of a given neurological pathway makes it easier for that pathway to become ____ and for neurons to ____ .
stimulated
communicate
Learning occurs because the ____ becomes hyper ____ , or more easily ____ than in the past. This is a ____ change. This synapse will be more ____ in the ____ .
synapse responsive stimulated permanent responsive future
Learning is a result of these changes in the ____ ____ , and specifically in the ____ .
neurological pathways
synapses
The main areas of the brain that are involved in the learning process are the ____ and the ____ .
cortex
hippocampus
Learning occurs across the ____ .
lifespan
Factors that impact learning vary across the lifespan including ____ , adequate ____ , exposure to ____ and ____ , appropriate ____ and ____.
stress
nutrition
drugs and alcohol
experiences and stimulation
Long term chronic stress disrupts ____ consolidation and retrieval.
memory
The presence of ____ facilitates learning.
glucose
Without adequate amounts of glucose, the raw materials needed for making ____ ____ is not available.
synaptic connections
What two areas of the brain are related to learning and memory?
hippocampus and cortex
Where are the areas of the brain where most of glutamates as neurotransmitters are made and have the most glutamate receptors?
hippocampus and cortex
Appropriate experiences and levels of stimulation cause pathways to form between neurons which makes ____ easier.
learning
____ and ____ are critical in brain development and maintenance throughout the lifetime.
experiences
stimulation
What shapes the brain?
Experiences
What is responsible for fewer pathways being formed?
lack of environmental stimulation
Experiences that stimulate us and enrich our lives not only make life more worth living, but also exercise our ____ ____ and keep us learning.
neural pathways
What impacts the functioning of basic cpmponents of the nervous system?
Environment
Nurturing ____ with a lot of stimulation can facilitate long term ability. Stressful, abusive, or neglectful ____ can interfere with long term learning and ability.
environments
environments
____ and ____ can interfere with the glutamine receptors in ways not fully understood.
drugs
chemicals
Do neurons connect with each other in a straight line?
No
Neurons send projections of their ____ to bunches of other neurons, and those neurons in turn send ____ to other bunches so that they are all ____ in a complicated way called ____ .
projections
projections
interconnected
networks
____ is the area of the cortex where the information is contained in neural networks consisting of patterns of excitation.
associational cortex
____ is a concept that neurons became so specialized that single neurons actually were responsible for something as complex as recognizing your grandmother and hence in this theory were called ____ . Current theory doesn’t support this idea.
Grandmother nuerons
____ is the process of stopping a neuron from firing.
inhibition
____ ____ is the process of a neuron turning off the neurons to either side by sending collateral projections to the neighbors.
lateral inhibition
____ ____ is the complex patterns of neurons.
neural networks
____ ____ ____ are projections that come off the axon of a neuron which go back to the same neuron, allowing the neuron to inhibit itself and sharpen its signals over time.
recurrent collateral projections
Most of the brain’s cortex, called ____ ____ , information is contained in networks which consist of patterns of ____ .
associational cortex
excitation
Information isn’t stored in single ____ but instead it is stored and processed by these networks which consist of ____ that send out branches to other neurons and sometimes even back to themselves in the form of a ____ .
neuron
neurons
loop
These loops that neurons send back to themselves are called ____ ____ ____ , and allow the neuron to inhibit itself and sharpen its signals over time.
recurrent collateral projections
Neurons also form ____ that go to neighboring neurons and allow them to inhibit their neighbors.
projections
Neurons form very complicated interrelated ____ .
structures
The same neurons can also overlap in different ____ and can be used in different ____ in different ____ .
networks
ways
settings
The ____ ____ which compromises about 90% of the cortex and where the information is stored in these networks of ____ .
associational cortex
excitation
Layers of neurons overlap and form ____ .
networks
____ of neurons carry out complex processes.
networks
How layers of neurons overlap and connect impact ____ , ____ ,and ____ perception.
creativity
memory
pain
____ ____ is the result of tapping into many networks and integrating the inputs.
memory retrieval
____ ____ continue to develop throughout our lifespans, and therefore we get increasingly rich connections throughout our lives.
neural networks
____ is often said to be the result of being able to make connections between a wide array of information and knowledge gained over tie from a variety of sources.
wisdom
It is the individual differences in ____ ____ ____ that cause people to know different information and to make different connections with their knowledge.
personal neural networks
____ is about how people make connections, and highly ____ people have broader networks than most and therefore can make unique associations and connections
creativity
creative
What is the ability to hold several facts or thoughts in memory temporarily while solving a problem or performing a task?
Working memory
A ____ ____ or ____ ____ in the frontal portion of the brain is responsible for processing information in the working memory.
central executive
neural system
An ____ ____ is a process of rapid verbal repetition of the to-be-remembered information, which greatly helps maintain it in working memory
articulatory loop
What is the type of memory needed to hold such information in one’s mind while working on it?
working memory
What memory holds information in mind for only a few seconds as it is processed?
short-term memory
What memory is where such processed information is permanently stored?
Long-term memory
What is an intermediary and active memory system in the information processing area of the brain?
working memory
What refers to the order of words in sentences that contributes to meaning?
Syntax
What is involved in all cognitive processes?
Working memory
Your ____ , ____ ____ , and ____ ____ make up a complex, integrated information-processing and control system known as your central nervous system.
brain
spinal cord
peripheral nerves
The study of the brain and nervous system is called:
neuroscience or neurobiology
In the cell, what builds proteins?
ribosomes
In the cell, what makes energy?
mitochondria
If the cell body dies, what happens to the neuron?
It dies.
Where are myelinated neurons typically found?
peripheral nerves (sensory and motor neurons)
Where are non-myelinated neurons found?
brain and spinal cord
What controls the reflexes and automatic functions, limb movements, and visceral functions?
brain stem
What are visceral functions?
digestion and urination
What are automatic functions?
heart rate and blood pressure
What integrates information from the vestibular system that indicates position and movement and uses this date to coordinate limb movements?
the cerebellum
What two things are responsible for visceral functions, body temperature and behavioral responses like feeding, drinking, and more?
hypothalamus and pituitary gland
What consists of the cortex, large fiber tracts, and some deeper structure, and integrates info from all of the sense organs, initiates motor functions, control emotions and holds memory and thought processes?
The cerebrum
What consists of the spinal cord, brain stem, and diencephalon?
The lower brain
What are groups of ribosomes that are used for protein synthesis?
nissl bodies
What is the system of tubes for transport of materials within cytoplasm?
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
What is ER with ribosomes?
rough ER
What is ER with no robosomes?
smooth ER
When there are ribosomes with ER, what is it important for?
protein synthesis
What is the membrane-bound structure important for packaging peptides and proteins (including neurotransmitters) into vesicles?
Golgi Apparatus
What is the system of transport for materials within a neuron and may be used for structural support?
microfilaments/ neurotubules
____ produces energy to fuel cellular activities.
mitochondria
What produces ribosomes necessary for translation of genetic information into proteins?
nucleolus
Neurons have what two processes?
axons and dendrites
