Module 2

Question 1

What are the key concepts of evolutionary psychology?

Answer 1

• Argues the human mind is shaped by evolutionary forces
  
  • Natural Selection: Limited resources and pressures promote adaptive traits to be carried forward
  • Sexual Selection: Traits which help us find mates are promoted.
    
    • Intrasexual competition: competing with same sex eg men developing aggression
    • Intersexual selection: impressing other sex eg signs of fertility, intelligence
• Dr David Buss examples
  
  • Sex differences in jealousy based on paternal uncertainty
  • Sexual over-perception bias: men overrate femal sexual interest, leads to stalking, harrassment
  • Darwinian paradox (difficulty explaining LGBTQ)
  • Murder as a way to reduce competition/obtain resources
  • Combine traditional investigation with molecular biology and archeological evidence

Question 2

What are some criticisms and challenges of evolutionary psychology?

Answer 2

• Deterministic: Some critics argue it advocates behaviour is predetermined by genetics alone
  
  • Counter; genetics explains predispositions only, decisions to act are based on environmental factors
• Insensitive/politically incorrect; Can be very insensitive when dealing with darker side of humanity
  
  • Examining rape and stalking as adaptive behaviour; potentially apologist
• Outdated; Modern society may be moving past pre-disposed evolutionary tendencies
  
  • eg people choosing to remain childless
• Testibility; almost all hypotheses are ad-hoc. Without testable hypotheses empirical data is impossible.

Question 3

What characteristics attract men, women and both?

Answer 3

• Both men and women are attracted to:
  
  • Intelligence, kindness, health
  • Similar attitudes, beliefs, personalities
• Men are attracted to: maximising reproductive output
  
  • Youth
  • Indications of health in hair and skin
  • Fertility; waist/hip ratio, large lips eyes (indicating estrogen), curvature of the spine.
• Women are attracted to: long term investment
  
  • Higher financial and social status
  • Dominant/masculine features and traits
  • Interest in children
  • Different immune system smells (reversed on pill)
    
    • Children of couples who met when women was on pill have lower immune systems

Question 4

What did Aspara (2018) find regarding the effects of intelligence on male marriage rates?

Answer 4

• Study Design: Followed men in Finland over 5 year period (initially married and unmarried). Measures used military intelligence tests and government records.
• Findings: Intelligence had a direct effect of liklihood to get married and stay married.
  
  • Verbal most predictive of getting married
  • All verbal, numerical, logical affected staying married
  • IQ effects present controlling for income/car possession
  • Effect of IQ stronger for younger men
• Limitations: Only tested men
  
  • Unclear if extends to women, if women’s preferences play a role.

Question 5

What are is the difference between blended families and stepfamilies?

Answer 5

• Blended Family: includes a child or children from a partner’s previous relationship and at least one biological or adopted child of both parents
  
  • Not mutually exclusive with same-sex families, which may be blended or not
• Stepfamily: includes parents who do not have biological children together.

Question 6

What are some of the benefits of blended families?

Answer 6

• A decline in the depressive symptoms of children of divorced parents;
• Availability of further support and exposure to new experiences within the blended family structure;
• Development of more adaptable and tolerant relational patterns for children and adults;
• Refinement of emotional resilience; and
• An increase in independent coping skills.

Question 7

What are some of the common challenges of blended families?

Answer 7

1. Creating new family relationships;
2. Adjusting to new living arrangements and potential relocation;
   
   • ​​Not starting from a blank slate, starting from lack of trust
3. Creating and adjusting to new family and house rules;
4. Reviewing co-parenting and contact arrangements with the children’s other parent;
   
   • ​New spouse may disagree with ex
5. Dealing with the loss of previous family structure and lifestyle;
   
   • ​Undercurrants of grief, loss, loyalty to old parent/partner can affect child adjustment (easier the younger the child generally)
6. Potential parental conflict regarding parenting and family values
7. Working with inheritance; unevenly shared between kids, new spouse?

Question 8

What differences in mental health prevalence are observed in children of non-nuclear families?

Answer 8

• Perales et al (2017) found higher prevelance of mental illness in australian non-nuclear children:
  
  • Major Depressive Disorders: significantly higher in stepfamilies and single parent, no difference between nuclear and blended though
  • ADHD; significantly higher in blended and single parent, no diff for stepfamilies
  • Conduct and anxiety disorders; higher in all non-nuclear families
• No indications of causality
  
  • Effects are generally a small size, many disappear accounting for parent mental health and finance
  • Possibility of reverse causality; increased stress parenting child with disorder could lead to relationship breakdown.

Question 9

What differences in parenting expectations are found in same-sex families?

Answer 9

• Same sex couples place little importance generally on genetic ties to children
  
  • Even seen as a potential source of inequity between parents
  • Many adoptive same sex parents have never attempted biological reproduction
  • Suggests desire for genetic tie in heterosexual couples may be culturally constructed and perceived difficulty of adoption process
• Australian attitudes to Assisted Reproductive Techniques; generally increased, generally more support for IVF than donors or surrogacy.
  
  • Majority in favour of ART by same sex couples (mostly women, uni-educated, left wing, non church goers)
  • Small minority ok with ART for straight but not gay couples (mostly retired, consevative men)
  • Sizable minority not ok with ART for anyone (mostly church goers)

Question 10

What did Jennings et al (2014) find regarding motivation for adoption among heterosexual, lesbian and gay couples?

Answer 10

1. Expectations of Parenthood: Heter-couples viewed having children as a given, same sex couples generally felt the opposite, especially gay men.
   
   • Minority of same sex couples had internalised homophobia, expression deliberation over best interest of child.
   • Changing societal views and laws prompted adoption interest
2. Sociolegal context: legal recognition as parents was important for gay and lesbian couples.
   
   • Heterosexual couples and some lesbians persued “easier” options first.
   • All couples except gays reported concerns over troubled children.
3. Second chance/second choice; Majority hetero couples, some lesbians, experienced fertility problems.
   
   • Nearly all hetero couples tried other options first
4. Moral Reasoning; All family types reported moral reasoning for adoption
5. Biological Relatedness/Family relationships; Biological parenthood not very important to same sex couples, even viewed as a potential problem
   
   • ​​For gay couples, exclusion of surrogates seemed wrong.

Question 11

What are some common challenges when parenting children with disability?

Answer 11

• Demands on parents: Increased requirements for mobility, routine, time constraints.
• Demands on relationships; Costs, time, etc can place extreme strain on couples, causing a lack of intimacy, leisure, alone time
  
  • Children respond better when parents present a united front
• Siblings of disabled children face challenges such as:
  
  • Reactions from the public;
  • Feeling the need to be the ‘perfect’ child
  • Taking on more roles and responsibilities at home
  • Feeling isolated from their sibling with special needs; may be unable to play with or receive reciprocal affection.
• Many children of them also experience positive growth, such as:
  
  • Increased maturity, Greater self-control, Empathy for others and acceptance and compassion towards others with differences.

Question 12

What did Tellegen and Sanders find regarding the efficacy of short term interventions for ASD families?

Answer 12

• Study/Design: Examines short form of stepping stones program (SSTP). 4 short sessions focusing on one or two specific problem behaviours.
  
  • Assessment pre intervention, post and 6 months
  • Assessed child behaviour, parent outcomes, observation of parent/child interaction.
• Findings: Supported SSPT as an intervention:
  
  • Significant effect for child behaviour, dysfunctional parenting styles, parent stress
  • No effect for parent depression/anxiety, observed interaction
  • Most short term effects were maintained long term
  • Satisfaction, parent conflict and happiness effected
• Limitations:
  
  • Floor effects on observational data (all very low ratings)
  • Most participants white, high SES, two parent families

Question 13

What are the Signpost, Incredible Years, PCIT and Triple P programs for children with disability?

Answer 13

• Signposts: Aims to equip parents with skills to manage/prevent difficult behaviour, encourage good behaviour, teach new skills.
  
  • Available in groups, face-to-face, online, phone
  • For kids 3-16, intellectually disabled or developmental delay
• Incredible Years Training for Parents: Promote children social skills, parent interpresonal skills, academic skills
  
  • For parents of kids 0-12 at risk of behavioral issues
  • extension available for ASD
• Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT): skill building and promotion of positive interaction styles. Includes one-way mirrors and bug in ears to instruct during interactions
  
  • Kids of parents 3-6 with behaviour/relationship problems.
  • Adapted for physically abusive parents of older kids
• Triple P Positive Parenting Program: five levels of increasing intensity intervention to increase parent skills, confidence, knowledge.
  
  • Versions for abuse, disability, chronic illness ages 0-16

Question 14

What are the Tuning In, Cool Kids, MF-PEP, and Parenting Wisely programs for parenting children with disability?

Answer 14

• Tuning In (For Kids/For Teens): Focus on parents emotional competence, ability to prevent and best respond to behavioural issues
  
  • Emotional/behavioural issues kids 1.5-18
  • Variant for dads
• Cool Kids: Reduce symptoms and life fallout from anxiety symptoms in children. Targets confidence, social support, family avoidance behaviours.
  
  • Children with anxiety 7-17 (options for comorbid depression/ younger kids)
  • Developing online format
• Multi-Family Psychoeducational Psychotherapy (MF-PEP): Understadning and management of mood disorders. Focus on communciation, problem solving, emotional regulation
  
  • 8-12yrs with depression/bipolar
• Parenting Wisely: Reduce conflict, increase communication. Delivered via computer simulation with interactive scenarios, demonstrations, feedback, quizzes.
  
  • Parents and kids aged 9-18 at risk of delinquincy

Question 15

How do anxiety disorders manifest in children?

Answer 15

• Onset: Phobias, GAD and separation anxiety generally begin age 8-10, with social, panic, OCD in adolescence
• Anxiety disorders have various symptoms:
  
  • Cognitive: attention, sensitivity, worry
  • Behavioural: Perfectionism, figiting, avoidance, speech
  • Physiological: Sleep disturbance, nausea, headaches
• Hard to define normal behaviour in children, need to rely on distress and impairment. Focus especially on physical symptoms, like sleep problems and excessive need for reassurance
• Management strategies: Educating children about anxiety and its symptoms
  
  • ​Managing thoughts, breathing, muscle relaxation, facing fears

Question 16

What is the Cumulative Risk Model of anxiety disorders?

Answer 16

• Pathway: Combination of predisposing factors increase the child’s risk and exposure to repeated anxiety-triggering events
  
  • Child Characteristics: Child has a number of risk factors that increased vulnerability to developing an anxiety disorder.
• Pre-disposing factors: Heredity (genetics), inhibited temperament (emotionality/ neuroticism), increased vulnerability to anxiety
  
  • eg. Unstable environment, anxious parenting style, anxious attachment, overprotective parenting, genetic risk for anxiety, wary temperament.

Question 17

What is the Precipitating Event model of anxiety?

Answer 17

• Anxiety is a Learned Response to an event:
  
  • Environmental characteristics: encountering a traumatic event (or repeated exposure) increase likelihood to react anxiously to “perceived” threat in other situations.
• Predisposing Factors: Parenting style and response to an anxious event (e.g., overprotective response style; lack of neighbourhood safety); number and/or intensity of anxiety-provoking events encountered.

Question 18

What five factors are consistent across two models of childhood anxiety?

Answer 18

1. Avoidance of anxiety-provoking situations;
2. Limited development of competencies (social, emotional, academic);
3. Cognitive bias to interpret situations as threatening;
4. Negative experiences; and
5. Parent/caregiver responses that are either overprotective or overly controlling.

Question 19

What links are there between personality and pet preference?

Answer 19

• Cat vs Dogs by gender:
  
  • Male dog lovers higher on agression/dominance, female dog lovers less aggressive. Males more extroverted, both genders more independent.
  • Male cat-lovers higher on autonomy, females less nuturing, less dominant.
• Big Five patterns dogs vs cats: (study over 4,500people)
  
  • Dog people higher on E C and A
  • Cat people higher on N and O
  • Effect held across gender
• Dog people more likely to be competitive and like social dominance structures.

Question 20

What did Gray et al find regarding the role of pets in online dating?

Answer 20

• Study Design/Aims: Survey of 1200 online daters (60%female, 50% response rate) in conjunction with Petbarn.
  
  • Relationship to pets may be viewed as proxy to attitude to future children (especially for women).
  • Changing role of pets in society
• Findings:
  
  • Men more likely to use pets to obtain dates
  • Women likely to judge date based on their pets reaction, attitude to pets, attraction to pet owners
  • Dog lovers more affected by pet factors than cat owners
  • Stronger effect for younger participants
• Limitations:
  
  • Lack of cultural generalisation
  • No examination of same-sex attraction
  • Self report

Question 21

What is the evidence for animal assisted therapy?

Answer 21

• Early evidence of therapeutic effects of pets:
  
  • Therapy dogs reduce homesickness in 1st yr students
  • Animal assisted therapy benefits intellectual disabilities
  • Meta-analysis support equine therapy for at risk youth
  • RCT supports animal-therapy for ASD, other disorders
• Paws for Stress: Dog event pre-exams online to reduce student stress
  
  • RCT found 15mins significantly reduced self-reported stress
  • Reduces cortisol in staff after 5mins
• Institute for Human Animal Interaction
  
  • More evidence is required to develop programs
  • Aims to bring community, research and groups together