Module 2 Flashcards
A good theory is which of the following?
a. Internally consistent
b. Falsifiable
c. Empirically supported
d. All of the above
D
A fundamental issue in the study of lifespan development is whether development is gradual or abrupt. This is referred to as which of the following:
a. Activity and passivity
b. Goodness and badness
c. Universality and specificity
d. Continuity and discontinuity
D
Dr Stevens, a developmental psychologist, espouses the view that behaviour is primarily determined by nurture. In this regard, she believes that
a. internal, maturational effects primarily drive human development and behaviour
b. environmental effects are more important than genetic effects in the determination of development and behaviour.
c. humans are fundamentally bad
d. the home environment is not important to development
B
A psychoanalytic theorist holds that humans are not responsible for their behaviours as biologically based motives exceed cognitive control in determining behaviour. This argument best communicates which of the following positions?
a. Tabula rasa
b. Passivity
c. Nurture
d. Activity.
B
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, personality is decomposed into three dimensions. Which dimension best reflects the moral components of personality?
a. Superego
b. Id
c. Generativity.
d. Ego
A
14 y.o Anthony is beginning to be emotionally and sexually interested in his female classmates at school. According to Freud, Anthony is in which of the following stages of development:
a. Phallic stage
b. Genital stage
c. Initiative vs guilt
d. Latent stage
B
In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus refers to
a. an unlearned event naturally capable of eliciting a specific response
b. an innate, biological motive
c. a behaviour learned through conditioning
d. a disposition the influences development
A
Social aggression has become a major problem in contemporary school contexts. Which of the following positions would Skinner argue in terms of explaining social aggression?
a. Social aggression is a genetic predisposition that is reflected in an individual’s personality
b. The individual who is aggressive may have been rewarded for being aggressive
c. Aggression may develop as a result of not adequately resolving a psychosocial crisis in life.
d. The aggressive behaviour has resulted from the individual observing such behaviour in the social environment
B
Grace has just purchased a new car. She notices an unpleasant beeping sound when she turns on the engine and her seat belt is unfastened. By fastening her seatbelt, grace can escape the sound. This is an example of which of the following?
a. Negative punishment
b. Positive reinforcement
c. Negative reinforcement
d. Positive punishment
C
Which of the following principles is a core feature of social cognitive theory but not operant conditioning?
a. Reinforcement
b. Observational learning
c. Punishment.
d. Extinction
B
Constructivism holds that learning is optimised
a. through constant reinforcement
b. by actively creating understandings of the world
c. through observation
d. when the individual is supported by peers
B
In attempting to explain the occurrence of unsafe sex among young people, Gottlieb would argue which of the following positions:
a. such sexual behaviour is the outcome of several interacting systems and contexts, including the evolutionary context and cultural environment, and the interactions of the individuals with their changing worlds
b. such sexual behaviour is the result of cognitive limitations of the young people
c. such sexual behaviour is the results of emotional conflicts related to sexual urges during the genital stage of development
d. such sexual behaviour is the result of pleasurable sensations that reinforce the behaviour
A
Explain: Goodness-Badness of Human Nature?
Are humans innately good, innately bad, neither (tabulae rasae), or both?
Explain: Nature-Nurture issue
Is development primarily the product of genes, biology and maturation - or of experience, learning and social influences?
Explain: Activity-Passivity
Do humans actively shape their own environment and contribute to their own development - or are they passively shaped by forces beyond their control?
Explain: Continuity-Discontinuity
Do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways - or do they progress through qualitatively different stages and change dramatically into different beings?
Explain: Universality-Context Specificity
Is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture - or do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social context?
Describe Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality?
Central notion: humans have instincts that
motivate behavior
◦ Unconscious motivation
Humans possess psychic energy that is divided
among three components of the personality
◦ Id – impulsive, selfish part of personality
◦ Ego – rational aspect that seeks to gratify
instincts
◦ Superego – internalized moral standards
What are the Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory?
◦ Theory said to be ambiguous, internally inconsistent,
not testable, and therefore not falsifiable
What are the Strengths of Freud’s Theory?
◦ Many insights have held up and been influential
Called attention to unconscious processes
Emphasized importance of early experience
Emphasized importance of emotions and emotional
conflicts
Who is Erik Erikson?
Most influential neo-Freudian
What are Erik Erikson’s Theories
Some differences with Freud ◦ Less emphasis on sexual urges ◦ More emphasis on rational ego ◦ More positive, adaptive view of human nature ◦ Development continues through adulthood
Eriksons Stages?
Trust vs. mistrust Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: Initiative vs. guilt: Industry vs. inferiority: Identity vs. role confusion: Intimacy vs. isolation: Generativity vs. stagnation: Integrity vs. despair
Approximate age of Erik Erikson’s stage of:
Trust vs Mistrust?
Infancy
Birth to 1 year
Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs. Responsive parenting is critical.
Approximate age of Erik Erikson’s stage of:
Autonomy vs shame and doubt?
Toddlerhood
1 to 3 years
Children must learn to be autonomous - to assert their wills and do things for themselves - or they will doubt their abilities
Approximate age of Erik Erikson’s stage of:
Initiative vs. guilt?
Preschool
3 to 6 years
Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and carrying out bold plans, but they must learn not to impinge on the rights of others.
Approximate age of Erik Erikson’s stage of:
Industry vs. inferiority?
School-age childhood
6 to 12 years
Children must master important social and academic skills and keep up with their peers, otherwise, they will feel inferior.
Approximate age of Erik Erikson’s stage of:
Identity vs. role confusion?
Adolescence
12 to 20 years
Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational identities; otherwise, they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults.
Approximate age of Erik Erikson’s stage of:
Intimacy vs. isolation
Young adulthood
20 to 40 years
Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation.
Approximate age of Erik Erikson’s stage of:
Generativity vs. stagnation
Middle age
40 to 65 years
Middle age adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as parents or as workers, otherwise, they will become stagnant and self-centered.
Approximate age of Erik Erikson’s stage of:
Integrity vs. despair
Late life
65 years and older
Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death without worries and regrets.
Strengths of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory?
Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature
Emphasis on interaction of biological and social
influences
Influenced research into adolescence and adulthood
Weaknesses of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory?
Sometimes vague and difficult to test
Describes human personality development but
does not explain how development occurs
If a theorist were to hold the view that children are tabula rasa, what position would they take on
the goodness or badness of human nature and the nature–nurture issues?
Locke’s tabula rasa perspective is that children are neither innately good nor innately
bad but can develop in any number of directions depending on their experiences (nurture).
What position are stage theorists likely to take on the issues of nature–nurture, continuity–
discontinuity and universality–context specificity?
Stage theorists are likely to believe that nature is important (nurture may be important
too, but stages are generally guided by maturation), that development is discontinuous
(stages are distinct), and that development has at least some universal characteristics (all
people progress through the same stages).
What contributions has Freud made to our understandings of human development? What aspects
of Freud’s theory has there been little support for?
Freud’s theory is recognised for calling attention to the importance of unconscious
processes, early experience, and emotions in development, but there is little support for his
ideas about the Oedipal/Electra conflict and children fantasising about sexual seduction by
their parents.
What are four major ways in which Erikson differed from Freud?
Compared to Freud, Erikson placed more emphasis on (1) social influences, (2) the
rational ego, (3) the potential for overcoming early problems, and (4) the whole life span
In what ways are the psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson weak?
The theories of Freud and Erikson are vague and difficult to test, and when tested
some ideas have not been supported. Their theories offer useful description of human
development but are limited in their ability to explain development.
Mr and Mrs Carter try to control their teenage daughter’s behaviour by (a) giving her an allowance
only if she does her weekly chores, (b) setting her weekend curfew earlier if she stays out later than
she was supposed to the weekend before, and (c) allowing her to get out of the distasteful task of
cleaning the bathroom if she spends time with her grandmother. What specific consequences, using
operant conditioning language, are illustrated by these three parenting strategies, and in each case,
what effect do the parents hope to have on their daughter’s behaviour?
The consequences applied by these parents are (a) positive reinforcement intended to
increase chore performance, (b) negative punishment intended to reduce staying out too
late (by taking away hours allowed out on the weekend), and (c) negative reinforcement to
increase spending time with Grandma (which allows her to avoid unpleasant bathroom
cleaning duty).
What are the main criticisms Albert Bandura might make of earlier behavioural learning theories?
Bandura would charge that behavioural learning theories (a) ignore the important roles
of cognition in human learning, (b) fail to appreciate the importance of observational
learning, and (c) do not put enough emphasis on the person (and therefore biological
influences), part of his concept of reciprocal determinism involving person, behaviour, and
environment.
Distinguish between concrete operational thinking and formal operational thinking in terms of
what is operated upon mentally, using a specific example if you can
Concrete operations are mental actions on tangible objects (as in mentally adding and
subtracting cookies); formal operations are mental actions on hypothetical ideas or abstract
concepts (as in thinking about the general processes of addition and subtraction).
What one major criticism would advocates of (a) the sociocultural perspective on cognitive
development, (b) the information-processing approach to cognition, and (c) adult cognitive theorists
make of Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory?
Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective claims that Piaget put too little emphasis on the
role of the social environment (culture, mentors) in cognitive development; the informationprocessing
approach to cognition emphasises mental processes and influences on them
more than Piaget, who emphasised knowledge or understanding; and adult cognitive
theorists would criticise Piaget’s theory for failing to consider how cognition might develop
throughout adulthood.
How might an ethologist go about studying influences on cooperation among preschool children?
An ethologist would mainly use naturalistic observation to observe cooperation in
preschools or in playgrounds where preschool children normally interact; she might also
experiment in the natural setting, varying stimuli that might be expected to affect
cooperative behaviour.
Using one phrase or term each, describe (a) the relationship between nature and nurture in
Gottlieb’s epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective and (b) the way in which the two
combine to influence development.
According to Gottlieb, nature and nurture (genes and environment) have (a)
bidirectional influence (or mutual or reciprocal influence) on one another; genes influence a
person’s environment, and environmental factors influence the activity of a person’s genes,
and (b) they co-act during the epigenetic process to influence development.
How has the position on the nature–nurture issue changed from (a) Freud to (b) Skinner to (c)
Gottlieb?
Stands on nature-nurture have changed from (a) Freud’s emphasis on biological forces
to (b) Skinner’s emphasis on environmental influences to (c) Gottlieb’s insistence that the
two are equally important, inseparable, and ‘co-act’ to shape development.
How has the position on the issue of universality–context specificity changed from (a) Freud to (b) Erikson to (c) Skinner?
Stands on the issue of universality–context specificity have changed from (a) Freud’s
emphasis on universal stages of personality development driven by the inner libido to (b)
Erikson’s view of universality of stages but with variation in expression of stages possible as
a result of cultural context to (c) Skinner’s rejection of universality and emphasis on varied
pathways of development depending on the environment.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Oral stage?
Birth to 1 year
Libido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a mother figure is critical to later development.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Anal stage?
1 to 3 years
Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training creates conflicts between the child’s biological urges and the society’s demands.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Phallic stage?
3 to 6 years
Libido centers on the genitals. resolution of the Oedipus or the Electra complex results in identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Latent period?
6 to 12 years
Libido is quiet, psychic energy is invested in schoolwork and play with same-sex friends.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Genital stage?
Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youths seek to establish mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goal of reproduction.
What is Positive punishment?
Adding and unpleasant stimulus
Weakens the behaviour
What is Positive reinforcement?
Adding a pleasant stimulus
Strengthens the behaviour
What is Negative reinforcement?
Withdrawing and unpleasant stimulus
Strengthens the behaviour
What is Negative punishment?
Withdrawing a pleasant stimulus
Weakens the behaviour
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory?
Formerly called social-learning theory
Emphasizes the motivating, self-regulating role of
cognition in human behavior
Includes observational learning – the most
important mechanism through which human
behavior changes
Bobo doll experiment
Concepts in Piaget’s Theory of
Cognitive Development
Intelligence: process that helps a person adapt
to the environment
Constructivism: children construct new
understandings of the world based on their
experiences
Interaction between biological maturation
and experiences is responsible for children’s
developmental progress from one stage to
the next, qualitatively different, stage
Jean Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years)
Preoperational (2-7 years)
Concrete operations (7-11 years)
Formal operations (11-12 and older)
Challenges to Piaget’s Theory of
Cognitive Development?
-Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective
◦ View that cognitive development is shaped by
its sociocultural context and children’s
interactions with members of their culture
-Information-processing approach
◦ Examines fundamental processes of attention,
memory, decision-making, etc.
Systems Theories?
Systems theories attribute changes over the
lifespan to ongoing, reciprocal transactions
between a changing organism and a changing
environment
◦ Examples
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
Gottlieb’s epigenetic psychobiological systems
perspective
Gottlieb’s Epigenetic Psychobiological
Systems Perspective
-Development is the product of interacting
biological and environmental influences that form
a larger system
-Evolution endowed humans with genetic makeup
-Genes and environment interact because humans
actively change their environments
◦ Occurs at the species level
◦ Biological and cultural evolution contribute to
change over time in the human species
Stage Theorists?
Freud, Erikson, Piaget
Discontinuous theorists?
Bandura, Vygotsky , Bronfenbrenner and
Gottleib believed in continuous
development and do not see the need for
stages.
Lev Vygotsky’s theory?
He emphasised the role of social interaction and clutural tools for cognitive development.
