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bio103 > module 2+3: definitions > Flashcards

module 2+3: definitions Flashcards

1
Q

Reductionism

A

look at pieces to understand the whole

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2
Q

Emergence

A

whole is more than the sum of all its pieces

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3
Q

August krogh models

A

demands conservation of the underlying structure and function

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4
Q

The August Krogh principle

A

states that for every biological problem, there’s an organism in which it can be most conveniently studied.

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5
Q

Acclimation

A

changes in physiology in response to a single environmental factor

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6
Q

Acclimatization

A

changes in physiology in response to a complex natural environment

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7
Q

Conformers

A

allow internal conditions to change with external conditions (humans have thermoconformers, osmoconformers, ionoconformers)

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8
Q

Regulators

A

maintain relatively constant internal conditions regardless of external conditions (humans have thermoregulators, osmoregulators, ionoregulators)

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9
Q

Allostasis

A

things that change to allow homeostasis. Actively change many systems to maintain constancy.

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10
Q

Source

A

endothermy (animals that use internal processes to generate heat that allows their body to remain warmer) and ectothermy (rely on external conditions as a way of controlling their body temperature)

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11
Q

Stability

A

homeothermy (animals that keep their body temperature relatively constant) and poikilothermy (allow their body temperature to vary)

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12
Q

Spatial hemotherm

A

animals that differ in parts of their body at different temperatures

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13
Q

Temporal hemotherm

A

animals that have a uniform body temperature but one that differs from one time of the day to another

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14
Q

Adaptation

A

natural selection favours those variations in a population that increase relative fitness.

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15
Q

Physiology

A

biological function for anatomy (jack rabbits can alter blood flow to their ears for regulation of heat lost to the environment).

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16
Q

Interstitial fluid

A

liquid filled spaces between cells in many animals. Link exchange surfaces to body cells.

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17
Q

Endotherms

A

animals use internal metabolic process as major heat source

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18
Q

Ectotherms

A

can produce some heat but not enough to elevate temperature

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19
Q

Vasodilation

A

widening of superficial blood vessels near body surface, result of nerve signals that relax the muscles of the vessel walls.

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20
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial vessels

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21
Q

Countercurrent exchange

A

transfer of heat or solutes between fluids that are flowing in opposite directions.

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22
Q

Bioenergetics

A

determines nutritional needs and is related to animal’s size, activity, and environment.

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23
Q

Metabolic rate

A

sum of all energy used in biochemical reactions over a given time interval.

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24
Q

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

measured over a comfortable range that requires no generation or shedding of heat above the minimum.

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25
Q

Standard metabolic rate (SMR)

A

determined at specific temperature because changes in environmental temperature alter body temperature/metabolic rate.

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26
Q

Torpor

A

physiological state of decreased activity and metabolism, adaptation that enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions.

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27
Q

Hibernation

A

long-term torpor, adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity.

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28
Q

Immune and Lymphatic systems

A

unction is body defense (fighting infections and cancer)

Components are; bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels, white blood cells

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29
Q

Excretory

A

unction is disposal of metabolic wastes, regulation of osmotic balance of blood
Components are; kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

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30
Q

Endocrine

A 
function is coordination of body activities (digestion and metabolism)
Components are; pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone-secreting glands
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31
Q

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

A

single layered cells form mucous membrane lining portions of the respiratory tract, cilia sweep film of mucous along the surface.

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32
Q

Simple squamous epithelium

A

single layer of platelike cells, function in the exchange of material by diffusion. Thin and leaky, lines blood vessels and the air sacs of the lungs (diffusion of gas and nutrients is crucial)

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33
Q

Simple columnar epithelium

A

large, brick-shaped cells are found where secretion and active absorption are important. Lines intestines, secreting digestive juices and absorbing nutrients.

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34
Q

Cuboidal epithelium

A

dice-shaped cells for secretion making up kidney tubules and many glands including thyroid and salivary.

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35
Q

Connective Tissue

A

cells scattered through an extracellular matrix, holding many tissues and organs together in place. Fibroblasts (numerous cells in the matrix, secreting fibers proteins) and macrophages (engulf foreign particles and cell debris from phagocytosis).

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36
Q

Loose connective tissue

A

bind epithelia to tissues and holds organs in place

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37
Q

Fibrous connective tissue

A

dense with collagenous fibers. Found in tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone at joints).

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38
Q

Bone

A

mineralized connective tissue. Osteoblasts are bone forming cells that deposit a matrix of collagen. Ca, Mg, and P ions combine into hard minerals within the matrix. Osteons are repeating cell units consisting of layers of mineralized matrix and are deposited around central canal containing blood vessels and nerves.

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39
Q

Adipose tissue

A

stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout the matrix. These tissue pads insulate the body and store fuel as fat molecules. Contains a large fat droplet that swells when fat is stored and shrinks when the body uses fat as fuel.

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40
Q

Cartilage

A

contains collagenous fibres embedded in a rubbery protein-carb complex called chondroitin sulphate (chondrocyte cells secrete collagen and chondroitin sulphate making strong but flexible material).

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41
Q

Blood

A

iquid extracellular matrix called plasma, consisting of water, salts, and dissolved proteins. Suspended in plasma are erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), and cell fragments (platelets). Red carry oxygen, white function in defense, and platelets aid in blood clotting.

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42
Q

Muscle Tissue

A

responsible for body movement. Consist of filaments containing the proteins actin and myosin, working together to enable muscles to contract.

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43
Q

Skeletal muscle

A

attached to bones by tendons, voluntary movements. Consists of bundles of long cells called muscle fibres. arrangement of filaments create a pattern of light and dark bands. Moves bones and body, bundles of long fibres running parallel to the length of the muscle.

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44
Q

Smooth muscle

A

found in walls of digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other internal organs. spindle shaped, involuntary body activities (constrict arteries).

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45
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

contractile wall of the heart, striated. Fibres interconnect via intercalated disks which relay signals from cell to cell and synchronize heart contraction.

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46
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

receive, processing, and transmission of information (brain information-processing centre). Contains neurons (transmit nerve impulses), and glial cells (support cells).

Neurons: receive nerve impulse from other neurons via cell body and dendrites. Neurons transmit to others (including muscles) via axons, bundled together into nerves.

Glia: nourish, insulate and replenish neurons, modulate neuron function.

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47
Q

Endocrine signalling

A

secreted molecules diffuse into the bloodstream and trigger response in target cells anywhere in the body.

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48
Q

Paracrine signalling

A

the secreting cells affects nearby cells

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49
Q

Autocrine signaling

A

the secreting cell affects itself

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50
Q

Synaptic signalling

A

neurotransmitters diffuse across synapses and trigger reposes in cells of target tissues (neurons, muscles, or glands)

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51
Q

Neuroendocrine signalling

A

neurohormones diffuse into the bloodstream and trigger response in target cells anywhere in the body.

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52
Q

Pheromones

A

chemicals that are released into the external environment, where members of the same species sometimes communicate.

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53
Q

Prostaglandins

A

modified fatty acids that are produced by many cell types and influence diverse physiological systems (immune response; promote fever and inflammation).

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54
Q

Signal transduction

A

changes in cellular proteins that convert extracellular chemical signal to a specific intracellular response

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55
Q

Endocrine Tissues and Organs

A

endocrine cells are grouped in ductless organs called endocrine glands.
Pineal gland: melatonin; regulation of biological rhythms

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56
Q

Hypothalamus

A

hormones released from posterior pituitary (oxytocin and vasopressin), releasing and inhibiting hormones (regulate anterior pituitary).

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57
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone (stimulate ovaries and testes), thyroid-stimulating hormone (stimulates thyroid gland), adrenocorticotropic hormone (stimulates adrenal cortex), prolactin (stimulates mammary gland cells), and growth hormone (stimulates growth and metabolic functions)

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58
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

oxytocin (stimulates smooth muscle cell contractions in uterus and mammary glands) and vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone (promotes retention of water by kidneys, influences social behaviour/bonding).

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59
Q

Thyroid gland

A

hyroid hormone/T3 and T4 (stimulate and maintain metabolic processes) and calcitioning (lowers blood Ca level)

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60
Q

Parathyroid glands

A

parathyroid hormone (raises blood Ca level)

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61
Q

Adrenal medulla

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine (raise blood glucose level, increase metabolic activities and constrict certain blood vessels)

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62
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

glucocorticoids (raise blood glucose level) and mineralocorticoids (promote reabsorption of Na and excretion of K)

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63
Q

Pancreas

A

insulin (lowers blood glucose level) and glucagon (raises blood glucose level)

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64
Q

Ovaries

A

estrogens (stimulate uterine lining growth, development and maintence of secondary sex characteristics) and progestins (promote uterine lining growth).

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65
Q

Testes

A

androgens (support sperm formation, promote development and maintenence of secondary sex characteristics).

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66
Q

Myofibrils

A

inside fibre, bundles arranged in parallel. Composed of thin and thick filaments (staggered arrays of myosin molecules)

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67
Q

Sarcomere

A

repeating basic contractile unit of the muscle, borders are lined in adjacent myofibrils.

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68
Q

Z and M lines

A

thin filaments are attached to Z lines and project toward the centre of sarcomere. Thick filaments are attached at M lines centered in the sarcomere.

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69
Q

Sliding filament model

A

neither thick nor thin filaments change in length when the sarcomere shortens. Thin and thick filaments slide past each other, increasing their overlap.

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70
Q

Tropomyosin

A

regulatory protein covers myosin-binding sites along thin filament, preventing actin and myosin from interacting.

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71
Q

Troponin complex

A

additional regulatory proteins bound to actin strands of thin filaments.

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72
Q

Transverse (T) tubules

A

infoldings of plasma membrane within muscle fibre allowing action potential spread deep into the interior.

73
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

A

T tubules make contact with this specialized endoplasmic reticulum. Opening CA channels.

74
Q

Motor unit

A

consists of single motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it controls

75
Q

Tetanus

A

twitches fuse into one smooth sustained contraction when rate is so high the muscle fibre cannot relax at all between stimuli

76
Q

Myoglobin

A

oxygen-storing protein

77
Q

Fast-twitch fibres

A

develop tension two to three times faster than slow-twitch, enabling brief rapid powerful contractions

78
Q

Slow-twitch fibres

A

found in muscles that maintain posture, can sustain long contractions, pumps Ca more slowly.

79
Q

Intercalated disks

A

specialized region where the plasma membranes of adjacent cardiac muscles cells interlock at

80
Q

Hydrostatic skeleton

A

consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment.

81
Q

Peristalsis

A

movement produced by rhythmic waves of muscle contractions passing from front to back

82
Q

Exoskeleton

A

hard encasement deposited on an animal’s surface

83
Q

Chitin

A

polysaccharide similar to cellulose, embedded in protein matrix forming material that combines strength and flexibility.

84
Q

Endoskeleton

A

hardened internal skeleton, buried within soft tissue.

85
Q

Ball-and-socket joint

A

found where humerus contacts shoulder girdle (and femur to pelvic girdle), enabling arms and legs to rotate and move in several planes.

86
Q

Hinge joint

A

between humerus and the head of the ulna, restricts movement to a single plane

87
Q

Pivot joint

A

enable rotating the forearm at the elbow and turning the head from side to side.

88
Q

neurons

A

giant ring axon, receives information from dendrites and the edge of the bell

89
Q

Cell body

A

where the neuron’s organelles, including nucleus, are located

90
Q

Dendrites

A

highly branched extensions of the neuron, receiving signals from other neurons

91
Q

Axon

A

extension that transmits signals to other cells, longer than dendrites. Axon hillock is where signals that travel down the axon are generated.

92
Q

Synapse

A

space between end of axon (axon terminal) and target cell.

93
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

chemical messengers pass information from transmitting neuron to the receiving cell (presynaptic cell). The neuron, muscle, or gland cell that receives the signal is the postsynaptic cell.

94
Q

Glial cells

A

nourish neurons, insulate axons of neurons, and regulate the extracellular fluid surrounding neurons.

95
Q

Sensory neurons

A

transmit information about external stimuli such as light, tough, or smell (or internal conditions; blood pressure and muscle tension)

96
Q

Interneurons

A

form local circuits connecting neurons in the brain

97
Q

Motor neurons

A

transmit signals to muscle cells, causing them to contract

98
Q

Central nervous system (CNS)

A

neurons carry out integration

99
Q

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

neurons carry information in and out of CNS

100
Q

Membrane potential

A

charge difference, voltage, ion gradients and ion channels interact across thin cell membranes and create a source of electrical potential energy.

101
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

inactive neuron, not sending a signal. Between -60 and -80 milliVolts.

102
Q

potassium intracellular and extracellular concentrations

A

140mM, 5mM

103
Q

sodium intracellular and extracellular concentrations

A

15mM, 150mM

104
Q

chloride intracellular and extracellular concentrations

A

10mM, 120mM

105
Q

anions inside cell (proteins) intracellular concentration

A

100mM

106
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

increase in magnitude of the membrane potential, makes inside of membrane more negative (Ek=-90 mV at 37*C)

107
Q

Depolarization

A

reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential, neurons often involve sodium channels (Ena=+62 mV at 37*C)

108
Q

nersnt potential

A

Ex= 62mV (log[X]outside/[X]inside)

109
Q

Action potential

A

depolarization shifts the membrane potential sufficiently , massive change in membrane voltage

110
Q

Voltage-gated ion channels

A

opening or closing when the membrane potential passes a particular level.

111
Q

Refractory period

A

a second action potential cannot be initiated

112
Q

Myelin sheath

A

electrical insulation that surrounds vertebrate axons

113
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

produce myelin sheaths in CNS

114
Q

Schwann cells

A

produce myelin sheaths in PNS

115
Q

Nodes of ranvier

A

gaps in myelin sheath, causing voltage-gated sodium channels are restricted

116
Q

Saltatory conduction

A

action potential appears to jump along the axon from node to node.

117
Q

Ligand-gated ion channel

A

receptor protein that binds to and responds to neurotransmitters (ionotropic receptor).

118
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

ligand channels permeable to K and Na open, membrane potential depolarizes toward threshold.

119
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

ligand channels selectively permeable to K or Cl open, postsynaptic membrane hyperpolarizes.

120
Q

Temporal summation

A

EPSPs add together

121
Q

Spatial summation

A

EPSPs produced simultaneously by different synapses on same postsynaptic neuron also add together

122
Q

Glutamate

A

amino acid, most common neurotransmitter

123
Q

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A

neurotransmitter at most inhibitory synapses in the brain

124
Q

Biogenic amines

A

neurotransmitters are synthesized from amino acids and include norepinephrine (made from tyrosine, excitatory NT in ANS)

125
Q

Dopamine and serotonin

A

dopamine made from tyrosine and serotonin made from tryptophan. Released at many sites and affects sleep, mood, attention, and learning.

126
Q

Neuropeptides

A

short chains of amino acids, serve as neurotransmitters that operate via metabotropic receptors.

127
Q

Endorphins

A

other neuropeptides that function as natural analgesics, decreasing pain perception.

128
Q

halifax consciousness scanner (HCS)

A

developed by dr. Ryan d’arcy. Listens to special sound recordings while HCS records the person’s brain waves.

129
Q

Nerve net

A

controls the contraction and expansion of the gastrovascular cavity formed by cnidarians.

130
Q

Cephalization

A

evolutionary trend toward clustering of sensory neurons and interneurons at the anterior end of the body, communicating with cells in nerve cords extending to the posterior end.

131
Q

Ganglia

A

segmentally arranged clusters of neurons

132
Q

Ependymal cells

A

line ventricles of brain and have cilia to promote circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid

133
Q

Astrocytes

A

facilitate information transfer and synapses and can release neurotransmitters. Next to active neurons can cause nearby blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood flow, enabling neurons to obtain O2 and glucose quickly. Regulate extracellular concentrations of ions and neurotransmitters.

134
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

myelinate axons increasing conduction speed of action potentials.

135
Q

Microglia

A

immune cells that protect against pathogens

136
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

formed in the brain by filtration of arterial blood. Circulates slowly through the central canal and ventricles then drains into the veins.

137
Q

Grey matter

A

consists of mainly neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, and glia.

138
Q

White matter

A

consists of bundled axons that have myelin sheaths, giving axons a white appearance

139
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

involuntary (sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric)

140
Q

Sympathetic division

A

corresponds to arousal and energy generation (flight or flight)

141
Q

Parasympathetic division

A

causes opposite responses that promote calming and return to self-maintenance functions (rest and digest)

142
Q

Enteric division

A

active in digestive tract, pancreas and gallbladder.

143
Q

Forebrain

A

contains olfactory bulb and cerebrum, process olfactory input (smells), regulation of sleep, learning, and complex processing

144
Q

Midbrain

A

coordinates routing of sensory input

145
Q

Hindbrain

A

forms the cerebellum, controlling involuntary activities (blood circulation and motor activity coordination)

146
Q

Basal nuclei

A

deep in white matter, clusters of neurons that serve as centres for planning and learning movement sequences.

147
Q

Reticular formation

A

diffuse network of neurons in the core of the brainstem, determines which incoming information reaches the cerebrum

148
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

group of neurons in the hypothalamus, acts as a pacemaker synchronizing the biological clock in cells throughout the body to the natural cycles of day length (coordinates circadian rhythms)

149
Q

Amygdala

A

stores emotional memory (part of limbic systems along with; hippocampus, olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, and thalamus)

150
Q

Positron-emission tomography (PET)

A

injection of radioactive glucose analogue enables display of metabolic activity

151
Q

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

brain activity in a region is detected by changes in the local oxygen concentration. Scanning the brain while performing a task correlates tasks with activity in specific brain areas.

152
Q

Schizophrenia

A
  1. affects neuronal pathways that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter (amphetamine “speed” stimulates dopamine release and create same symptoms)
  2. alters glutamate signaling (angel dust/PCP) blocks glutamate receptors inducing strong symptoms
153
Q

Amyloid plaques

A

aggregates of B-amyloid (insoluble peptide cleaved from extracellular membrane protein found in neurons). Secreatases catalyze cleavage causing it to accumulate in plaques outside the neurons, triggering death of surrounding neurons.

154
Q

Neurofibrillary tangles

A

made of tau protein, helps assemble and maintain microtubules that transport nutrients along axons. In Alzheimer’s, tau undergoes changes that cause it to bind to itself, resulting in tangles (relates to early-onset).

155
Q

Statocysts

A

mechanoreceptors that sense gravity and maintain equilibrium, a layer of ciliated receptor cells surrounds a chamber that contains one or more statoliths (grains of sand or other dense granules)

156
Q

Essential amino acids

A

animals need 20 amino acids to make proteins, most have enzymes to synthesize half of these amino acids (diet includes sulfur and organic nitrogen) the other half is obtained from food

157
Q

Essential fatty acids

A

animals produce enzymes to synthesize most fatty acids they need, the rest is because they lack the ability to introduce specific types of double bonds.

158
Q

Vitamins

A

organic molecules that have diverse functions and are required in the diet in very small amounts. Are classified as water soluble or fat soluble. Required amount ranges from 0.01 to 100 mg per day.

159
Q

Minerals

A

inorganic nutrients (iron and sulfur) that are usually required in small amounts of 1 to 2500 mg per day.

160
Q

Intracellular digestion

A

hydrolysis of food inside vacuoles

161
Q

Extracellular digestion

A

breakdown food in compartments that are continuous outside of animals body

162
Q

Hepatic portal vein

A

blood vessel that leads directly to the liver

163
Q

Chylomicrons

A

water-soluble globules, transported out of epithelial cell into lacteal (vessel at core of villus)

164
Q

Single Circulation

A

blood passes through the heart once in each complete circuit. Blood collects in the arium then enters the ventricle, contraction pumps the blood to arteries.

165
Q

Double circulation

A

blood moving between the heart and the rest of the body (systemic circuit) is separated from blood traveling between the heart and respiratory surface (pulmonary circuit)

166
Q

Pulmocutaneous circuit

A

animals respire through lungs and skin

167
Q

circulation steps

A
  1. Contraction of the right ventricle pumps blood two lungs via pulmonary arteries
  2. Blood flows through to the capillary beds in the left and right lungs loading oxygen and unloading carbon dioxide
  3. Oxygen rich blood returns from lungs via pulmonary veins to left atrium of the heart
  4. Oxygen rich blood flows into the hearts left ventricle pumping the blood out to body tissues through the systemic circuit
  5. Blood leaves the ventricle via the aorta, conveying blood to arteries throughout the body.
  6. Branches lead to capillary beds on the head and arms, the aorta descend into the abdomen supplying oxygen-rich blood to arteries leading to capillary beds in the abdominal organs and legs
  7. In the capillaries there is a net diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the tissues and of carbon dioxide in the blood
  8. Capillaries rejoin forming venules which convey blood to the veins
  9. Oxygen-poor blood from head, neck, and forelimbs are channeled into the large vein, superior vena cava
  10. The inferior vena cava drains blood from trunk and hind limbs
  11. The venue empty blood into the right atrium, oxygen-poor blood flows into the right ventricle
168
Q

systole vs diastole

A

contraction and relaxation phases of the cardiac cycle (complete sequence of pumping and filling)

169
Q

Cardiac output

A

volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute (two factors determine; rate of contraction and stroke volume)

170
Q

Rate of contraction

A

heart rate BPM (72BPM yields a 5L/min cardiac output)

171
Q

Stroke volume

A

amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction (ave: 70mL)

172
Q

Atrioventricular valve AV “lub”

A

anchored by strong fibres between the atrium and ventricle, preventing them from turning inside out, pressure from a contraction closes the valves keeping blood from flowing back into the atria

173
Q

Semilunar valves “dub”

A

located at the two exits of the heart (aorta leaves the left ventricle and pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle), valves are pushed open by the pressure of contraction. When the ventricles relax blood pressure builds up and the aorta closes to prevent backflow.

174
Q

Heart murmur

A

blood squirts back through a defective valve producing and abnormal sound

175
Q

Sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker)

A

cluster of autorhythmic cells located in the wall of the right atrium, where vena cava enters the heart

176
Q

Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG)

A

currents are recorded by electrodes placed on the skin, graph represents the stages in the cardiac cycle

177
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) node

A

impulses are delayed 0.1 second before spreading to the heart apex, delay allows the atria to empty completely before the ventricles contract, signals are conducted to apex throughout the ventricular walls by bundle branches/purkinje fibres.

178
Q

Sickle-cell disease

A

abnormal form of hemoglobin polymerizes into aggregates, large enough to distort erythrocyte into an elongated curved shape that resembles a sickle

bio103 (4 decks)

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