MODULE #2

Question 1

Griffiths (2013) provided a summary major factors that influence general police decision-making in any given encounter (General Factors Influencing Police Decision-Making)

(4)

Answer 1

(1) The policing task environment,
(2) The person of interest,
(3) The individual police officer, and
(4) Visibility of the decision.

Question 2

policing task environment refers to: (2)

Answer 2

(1) the environment in which a police officer is working.
(2) High-density downtown environments comprised of ethnically diverse populations will present significantly different challenges to police officers than remote, rural areas

Question 3

The person of interest

2

Answer 3

(1) The specific attitudes and behaviours of the person confronted by police will also affect police decision-making.
(2) A person pulled over for speeding who is polite and respectful may be treated differently by a police officer than someone who is belligerent and confrontational.

Question 4

Visibility of the decision

Answer 4

technology and phone cameras have increased the visibility of police decision-making

Question 5

Griffiths (2015) identifies several other factors influencing police decisions

(3)

Answer 5

(1) community/political pressure,
(2) the seriousness of the alleged offence, and
(3) laws and policies.

Question 6

Individual Police Officers and Decision-Making Constructs (2)

Answer 6

(1) the attitudes and beliefs of individual police officers may also influence decision-making in any encounter.
(2) Each individual officer will enter an encounter with his or her own biases and interactional styles that will impact the direction and/or outcome of that encounter.

Question 7

people routinely use decision-making shortcuts to cut through complex information, often focusing on specific aspects of a problem to make decisions. Griffiths has identified two types of decision-making strategies employed by police-officers:

Answer 7

(1) typifications

(2) recipes for action

Question 8

typifications (2)

Answer 8

(1) Refers to the various ways in which police officers quickly categorize The people and situations they encounter
(2) could include any visual cue that a police officer could use to draw quick inferences about an individual or a situation.

Question 9

Recipes for action

Answer 9

The actions taken and decisions made by police officers in various encounters

Question 10

One of the concerns that quickly emerge when we look at typficiations and recipes for action in the context of police decision-making is:

Answer 10

that they are often informed by inaccurate stereotypes

Question 11

Discretion

Answer 11

refers to the freedom of police officers to use their judgment and choose among the options when confronted with the need to make a decision

Question 12

Police exercise discretion: (7)

Answer 12

(1) To arrest
(2) To stop, question, or frisk
(3) To use physical force
(4) To use deadly force
(5) To investigate a complaint as a crime
(6) To use certain enforcement tactics
(7) To write traffic tickets

Question 13

selective (or situational) enforcement (3)

Answer 13

(1) the discretionary enforcement due to the inability of police officers to enforce all of the laws all of the time
(2) if the police enforced every law all the time they would quickly become overwhelmed and courts would face a large backlog.
(3) Many violations of law are minor and the fact that our expectations of what police do extends beyond crime-fighting to include community services presumes that police officers should often work with the public to resolve concerns without progressing further into the justice system.

Question 14

In his book Urban Justice, Herbert Jacob (1973, p. 27) outlined several major categories of factors that could influence police discretionary decision-making: (4)

Answer 14

1. Characteristics of the Crime
2. Relationship between alleged criminal and victim
3. Relationship between police and the criminal or victim
4. Department or legal policies

Question 15

Characteristics of the Crime

Answer 15

Serious or violent crimes are more likely to result in arrest

Question 16

Relationship between police and the criminal or victim

Answer 16

Police may be less likely to make an arrest in encounters where the victim and offender know each other

Question 17

Relationship between police and the criminal or victim

Answer 17

Citizens who are respectful in their encounters with police officers may be less likely to be arrested

Question 18

Department or legal policies (2)

Answer 18

1. Police department may differentially emphasize arrests for certain behaviours.
2. Departments emphasizing ‘broken windows’ policing may encourage arrests for nuisance behaviours

Question 19

According to Goff (2017), police officers generally consider three factors in their day-to-day operations:

Answer 19

1. The crime
2. The attitude of the citizen
3. Standards and policies

Question 20

The crime

Answer 20

The type and seriousness of crime being investigated plays a great role in determining whether police will exercise their legal authority.

Question 21

The attitude of the citizen:

Answer 21

The attitude of the citizen involved in the police encounter. Research suggests that disrespectful or defiant behaviour will often trigger the police to exercise their legal authority

Question 22

Standards and Policies as it relates to use of discretion: (2)

Answer 22

1. Policing standards and departmental policies can be enacted that limits the use of discretion in certain situations.
2. Many jurisdictions employ a zero-tolerance policy for 911 calls for alleged incidents of domestic violence leaving police officers with no option but to make an arrest and lay charges.

Question 23

One of the most important areas of police discretion is:

Answer 23

the use of force in law enforcement encounters

Question 24

In Canada, the use of force by police officers is governed by: (2)

Answer 24

(1) statutes and case law.

(2) Several sections of the Criminal Code of Canada permit the use of force by police officers.

Question 25

The Supreme Court of Canada reiterated that the use of force by police officers should be:

Answer 25

constrained by principles of “proportionality, necessity, and reasonable”

Question 26

force options model refers to

Answer 26

the working model or continuum of use of force options in relation to threats posed that forms the basis of most police training models in Canada

Question 27

force options model (2)

Answer 27

(1) sets out what an appropriate level of force is in response to particular levels of threat
(2) also provides police administrators and judicial review personnel with criteria for evaluating the appropriateness of use of force decisions by police officers

Question 28

In general most police models of use of force in Canada are based on the:

Answer 28

one-plus-one standard

Question 29

one-plus-one standard

Answer 29

allows police officers to use one higher level of force than that with which they are confronted.

Question 30

Less lethal force options

Answer 30

refer to control techniques that are unlikely to cause death or serious injury

Question 31

While the Taser is considered a non-lethal force option its employment by police services is not without controversy.

(3)

Answer 31

(1) Police Implementation and Policy
(2) Effectiveness
(3) Physiological impact

Question 32

Controversy of Police Implementation and Policy regarding the taser (2)

Answer 32

(1) Some U.S. reports indicate that the categorization of the Taser on use of force continuums vary across police services.
(2) Other reports suggest that the Taser is disproportionately employed against male African American or Hispanic males and is frequently used when suspects exhibit signs of mental illness.

Question 33

Controversy of Effectiveness of the taser (2)

Answer 33

(1) As a non-lethal force option does the Taser effectively control or subdue suspects?
(2) Research generally indicates that the use of the Taser is associated with reductions in injuries in police-citizen encounters.

Question 34

Controversy of Physiological Impact of the taser

2

Answer 34

(1) As a non-lethal force option the Taser should not produce any long-term harmful effects when administered.
(2) Studies of Taser-proximate deaths in police-citizen encounters have found that the Taser was not listed as a direct cause of death in any cases

Question 35

Braidwood Inquiry

3

Answer 35

(1) would eventually conclude that the RCMP officers failed to make any real effort to de-escalate the situation and that there was no justification in tasering Dziekanski.
(2) In addition, the final report pointed to conflicting reports offered by the officers involved.
(3) Two RCMP officers – Monty Robinson and Kwesi Millington – were later convicted of perjury.

Question 36

What three extralegal factors influencing police decision making does Schulenberg (2016) identify?

Answer 36

(1) mental health status
(2) whether a citizen under the influence of alcohol or drugs increases the likelihood of an arrest
(3) definitions and the influence of citizen demeanour

Question 37

What three reasons for the need for research on factors affecting the use of police discretion does Schulenburg (2016) identify?

Answer 37

(1) Mobile crisis teams consisting of a mental health professional riding with a police officer are prevalent but continue to be restricted in their ability to respond to the higher number of PMI-related calls. This results in patrol officers remaining the primary responders and decision–makers with knowledge based on recruit training and field experience
(2) The current mental health training is not as effective as we would like to believe. Thus, factors other than training Content are influencing the decision-making process (for example substance abuse, demeanour)
(3) there are complications created by an inability to keep pace with the number of officers and resources required to respond to calls for service.

Question 38

Describe the methodology used for the study in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone?

Answer 38

Collected systematic social observation data on police decision-making and the use of discretion

Question 39

Who were the participants in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (2)

Answer 39

(1) regional police service with three urban and two rural divisions serving a population of 536,793
(2) The analysis included only those citizens identified as a suspect where the police were in a position to issue a citation or lay a criminal charge and were over 18 years of age

Question 40

Describe the procedure used in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (6)

Answer 40

(1) conducted 637 hours of ride alongside with patrol officers in all divisions from November 2011 to June 2012
(2) observational hours did not include time in roll call, cellblock, or other activities while not on active patrol.
(3) ride along data were collected on the early or late afternoon shifts from Thursday to Sunday.
(4) The ride along, encounter, and citizen forms were printed in advance and filled out in the car after each call while the officer completed his or her paperwork
(5) while The data analysis of the field notes and narratives used the constant comparison method, the intrarater reliability test for dependability was employed
(6) qualitative coding occurred over a period of five weeks.

Question 41

What measures and independent variables were included in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (3)

Answer 41

(1) encounter characteristics such as dispatched calls & offence seriousness
(2) citizen characteristics
(3) Situational factors such as being under the influence of alcohol or drugs, disrespect toward the officer

Question 42

What was the dependent variable in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone?

Answer 42

Whether an officer lays a criminal charge or issues a citation when reasonable grounds exist to do so

Question 43

What factors influenced police discretion in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (7)

Answer 43

(1) dispatched calls
(2) more likely to formally sanction males but less likely to do so with younger citizens
(3) more likely to charge or issue a citation if the Citizen is under the influence of alcohol or drugs
(4) more likely to charge or issue A citation if disrespectful of the officer’s
authority
(5) more likely to charge if it was a serious offence
(6) prior record
(7) uncooperative

Question 44

What role did mental health status play in police decision-making in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (9)

Answer 44

(1) when the label of mentally ill is activated, verbal and physical containment occurs.
(2) following containment is the use of de-escalation techniques, checks on well-being, and ensuring the safety of all parties and use investigative detentions.
(3) The complainant or witnesses’ side of the story is gathered first, then officers ask the PMI for their account of events
(4) additional record searches are conducted to verify versions of events and history.
(5) PMIs receive warnings in the form of an admonishment similar to warnings given to juveniles rather than offence–related statements
(6) PMIs receive a higher number and more restrictive conditions for release
(7) officers routinely made recommendations for the type of court intervention, whether mental health court is appropriate, and explained the need for additional release conditions on a promise to appear to avoid a repeat call for service that shift.
(8) officers are much more likely to work toward a resolution that ceases the behaviour rather than criminalization
(9) on average, the circumstances where discretion is less likely to be used is when citizens are perceived as a danger to themselves or others, under the influence, or disrespectful, which are all behaviours that are potentially interpreted as symptomatic of a mental illness

Question 45

In the paper: The Police Officer’s Dilemma: A Decade of Research on Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot, What sociological evidence do the authors review? Describe briefly.

(4)

Answer 45

1. Data from the Department of Justice (DOJ, 2001) indicate that, per capita, police are roughly five times more likely to shoot a Black person than a White person.
2. sociological research consistently shows a discrepancy such that officers use greater force (both lethal and non-lethal) when the suspect is Black rather than White.
3. evidence seems to suggest that law enforcement may be biased when employing lethal force against Black suspects.
4. Findings seem to suggest that the discrepancy in use of force is warranted and can be explained in terms of differences between Whites and Blacks in criminal activity.

Question 46

According to experimental or lab research, what role does racial bias play in police decision-making?

(4)

Answer 46

(1) showed no bias in their decision
criteria, but there was evidence of bias in officers’ response times.
(2) officers were faster to shoot armed targets when they were Black (rather than White), and they were faster to choose a don’t-shoot response if an unarmed target was White (rather than Black).
(3) Bias suggests that, when confronted with a Black target, officers may activate racial stereotypes related to threat.
(4) In line with this possibility, response
time bias was greatest among officers whose districts were characterized by a large (urban) population, a high rate of violent crime, and a greater concentration of Blacks and other minorities – environments likely to reinforce racial stereotypes.

Question 47

What are threat-relevant stereotypes and what role do they play in the police decision to shoot?

(2)

Answer 47

1. the decision to shoot stems from stereotypic associations connecting Blacks to the concepts of danger and threat in our culture.
2. greater awareness of stereotypes linking Blacks with danger showed more pronounced threat-like responses to Black targets, which in turn led them to show more bias when making the decision to shoot.

Question 48

According to the researchers, what other factors need to be considered in translating lab research to police practice?

Answer 48

1. Fatigue

2. Fear & arousal

Question 49

Gudjonsson (2002) explains the main purpose of investigative interviewing as:

Answer 49

eliciting “reliable, accurate and legally admissible information” from suspects, victims, and witness to find the facts within the context of a crime investigation.

Question 50

The information gathered through investigative interviewing constitutes

Answer 50

around eighty percent of all evidence gathered throughout a typical crime investigation, while the “real and documentary evidence” (i.e. physical evidence such as objects and documents gathered to prove or disprove the guilt in an investigation) can constitute the remaining twenty percent of all evidence

Question 51

Interview Vs. Interrogation

3

Answer 51

(1) Interviewing has been used to refer to all types of information gathering while interrogation is only associated with the interviewing of suspects.
(2) The objective of an interview is to gain information, the objective of an interrogation is to gain a confession.
(3) The goal of interviewing is to collect truthful data to be used for informed decision-making and just action-taking. An interrogation, is a face-to-face meeting with a subject with the distinct objective of gaining admission or a confession in a real or apparent violation of law or policy.

Question 52

the two mostly used investigative interviewing techniques:

Answer 52

(1) Reid Model of Interrogation

(2) PEACE Model of Interviewing

Question 53

interrogation

Answer 53

refers to an interview process with a suspect of an alleged crime that is intended to gather more information about the crime and to induce a confession

Question 54

Confession

Answer 54

refers to an informal admission made to a person in authority

Question 55

The fact that interrogations are in part designed to elicit confessions from suspects is important to note:

(2)

Answer 55

(1) the interrogation process is inherently confrontational in nature.
(2) confession evidence has a significant impact on adjudication decisions in criminal courts and is in one of the strongest predictors of verdicts in trial simulation studies

Question 56

One of the most common approaches to interrogations in North America

Answer 56

The Reid Model of Interrogation

Question 57

Reid Model of Interrogation

Answer 57

developed by polygrapher John Reid, is a three-component interrogation process that is designed to make the perceived consequences of a confession more desirable than the anxiety generated by lying to authorities

Question 58

How many stages are in the Reid mode?

Answer 58

9

Question 59

Stage 1 of the Reid Model

2

Answer 59

(1) Gather evidence related to the crime

(2) Interview witnesses and victims

Question 60

Stage 2 of the Reid Model

Answer 60

Conduct non-accusatory interview of suspect to evaluate evidence or deception

Question 61

Stage 3 of the Reid Model

Answer 61

Conduct an accusatorial interrogation of suspect if the suspect is perceived to be guilty over a nine-step procedure

Question 62

At Stage 3, the Reid Model outlines nine steps that interrogating police officers can adopt to induce a confession from suspects. The techniques that are recommended across these nine steps can be organized into two broad categories

Answer 62

minimization techniques and maximization techniques.

Question 63

Minimization techniques

Answer 63

refer to “soft sell” tactics used in interrogation that are intended to reduce the perceived consequences of confessing to the crime

Question 64

maximization techniques

Answer 64

are “scare tactics” that are intended to increase the perceived costs of not confessing and coerce suspects into confessing

Question 65

Two examples of minimization techniques

Answer 65

(1) Blaming the victim

(2) sympathizing with the subject

Question 66

Two examples of maximization techniques

Answer 66

(1) Exaggerated claims about evidence

(2) Reducing the physical distance between the suspect and interrogator

Question 67

The Reid Model of Model of Interrogation has been the subject of frequent criticism. Psychologist Joanna Pozzulo and her colleagues (2015) have outlined three major areas of concern:

Answer 67

(1) the ability of law enforcement officers to detect deception,
(2) confirmation bias, and
(3) the impact of coercive and/or suggestive interrogation practices on false confessions

Question 68

Confirmation bias (or investigator bias)

2

Answer 68

(1) refers to the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms our personal expectations or hypotheses.
(2) Psychological research suggests that when have a formed opinion before we begin searching for information we have a tendency to selectively search for information that supports our preconceptions often ignoring contradictory facts.

Question 69

The biggest concern that has been raised about coercive nature of the Reid Model of Interrogation is:

(2)

Answer 69

(1) the potential for false confessions.
(2) According to the Innocence Project, approximately 25% of individuals wrongfully convicted in the United States later exonerated by DNA evidence had provided a false confession.

Question 70

A typology of false confessions proposed by Kassin and Wrightsman (1985)

(3)

Answer 70

(1) Voluntary
(2) coerced compliant
(3) coerced internalized

Question 71

Voluntary False Confessions (2)

Answer 71

(1) A false confession that is provided without any elicitation from the police
(2) desire for notoriety, mental illness, guilt for unpunished crimes

Question 72

Coerced compliant confessions

(2)

Answer 72

(1) results from a desire to escape a coercive interrogation environment or gain a benefit promised by police
(2) to escape further interrogation, gain a promised benefit, avoid threatened punishment

Question 73

Coerced internalized false confession (2)

Answer 73

(1) Results from suggestive interrogation techniques whereby the confessor actually comes to believe he or she committed the crime
(2) psychologically vulnerable, history of substance abuse, intellectual disability

Question 74

PEACE Model of Interrogations

Answer 74

is a non-accusatorial, information-gathering approach to investigative interviewing that is based on the assumption that subjects will be increasingly likely to cooperate when they are relaxed and have rapport with the interviewer

Question 75

PEACE stands for:

Answer 75

Preparation and Planning
Engage and Explain
Account, Clarify, and Challenge
Closure
Evaluation

Question 76

Preparation and Planning

Answer 76

the investigators extensively research both the crime and the suspect and prepare their opening and follow-up questions based on the existing evidence

Question 77

Engage and Explain

Answer 77

the interviewers introduce themselves to the suspect, explain the purpose of the interview and provide any necessary legal cautions, and engage them in conversation to establish rapport.

Question 78

Account, clarify and challenge

Answer 78

The interviewers then elicit the suspect’s account of the events in question using various non-coercive techniques.

Question 79

Closure

Answer 79

the interviewers summarize the major points and provide the suspect with an opportunity to clarify or add information

Question 80

Evaluation (PEACE Model)

Answer 80

The interviewers then evaluate the information obtained from the process.

Question 81

is a major component of police interviewing

Answer 81

The ability to detect deception

Question 82

Applied social psychologist Aldert Vrij (2008) has defined deception as

Answer 82

a successful or unsuccessful deliberate attempt, without forewarning, to create in another a belief which the communicator considers to be untrue

Question 83

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Answer 83

is responsible for regulating automatic or involuntary functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and skin conductance.

Question 84

The polygraph is based on an assumption that

Answer 84

our levels of emotional arousal – increases in heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance activity – are likely to be elevated when we are lying.

Question 85

lie detection efforts have often relied on:

3

Answer 85

(1) stereotypes or myths about lying and expected behaviours.
(2) Investigators often assume that there is a “Pinocchio’s nose” particularly focusing on non-verbal cues such as gaze aversion, posture or fidgeting, and nervousness as indicators of deception.
(3) However, a large body of empirical research offers little support for the utility of these indicators

Question 86

To date, forensic psychologists have carried out a large body of research exploring the ability of criminal justice personnel to detect deception in others. Most of this research suggests that:

Answer 86

on average, the majority of law enforcement and criminal justice personnel are not particularly good at correctly identifying a liar

Question 87

Non-Verbal Indicators of Deception (2)

Answer 87

(1) Emotional Facial Expression

(2) Blink rate

Question 88

Emotional facial expression (2)

Answer 88

(1) There is some empirical research that suggests that liars will often attempt to manipulate their facial expressions to appear consistent with their fabricated narratives.
(2) Psychologist Paul Ekman has argued that we can detect deception by monitoring microexpressions

Question 89

Microexpressions (3)

Answer 89

(1) brief leaks in genuine emotions that manifest in the form of half- or full-face emotional expressions for a fraction of a second
(2) Research suggests that microexpressions are easier to spot when the liar is trying to hide high-intensity emotions as compared to low-intensity emotions.
(3) However, microexpressions are not exclusive to deceptive emotions and sometimes surface in genuine expressions.

Question 90

Blink rate (4)

Answer 90

(1) The use of the rate of blinking as an indicator of deception is controversial.
(2) There is some empirical support showing that liars on average blink more than people telling the truth, but the average differences are statistically small.
(3) Moreover it is believed that blink rate changes under a very specific set of circumstances.
(4) That is, liars may be more likely to blink when they are trying to conceal their emotional responses specifically to questions pertaining directly to the crime.

Question 91

Interviewing Witnesses: Common Errors in Interviewing (4)

Answer 91

(1) Asking too many short-answer questions
(2) Inappropriate sequencing of questions
(3) Interrupting the witness
(4) Asking leading questions

Question 92

Cognitive Interview (2)

Answer 92

(1) is a formal interview procedure, based on cognitive and social psychological theory, designed to enhance information generation from a witness’ memory.
(2) As a police interview protocol, the CI procedure was designed to assist with interviewing cooperative witnesses, not suspects

Question 93

The Cognitive Interview protocol is divided into several steps:

(5)

Answer 93

(1) Rapport building
(2) Mental reconstruction of crime
(3) recall crime in different temporal orders
(4) Recall and report and relevant detail
(5) Recall crime from different perspectives

Question 94

The Cognitive Interview: Building Rapport (2)

Answer 94

(1) An introduction is made that establishes a relationship between the witness and the interviewer
(2) Interviewer explains the process to the witness

Question 95

The Cognitive Interview: Mental reconstruction of crime

2

Answer 95

(1) Witness is asked to reconstruct the physical and personal context surrounding the crime
(2) Visualize the surroundings, describe their general activities leading up to the crime

Question 96

The Cognitive Interview: Recall crime in different temporal orders

Answer 96

Witness is asked to recall the event in different temporal orders (e.g. start from the end and work backwards this time)

Question 97

The Cognitive Interview: Recall and report any relevant detail

Answer 97

Witnesses are prompted to report any detail that may be relevant to the crime including partial or incomplete information

Question 98

The Cognitive Interview: Recall crime from different perspectives

Answer 98

Witnesses are asked to recall the crime from different perspectives and locations

Question 99

What are the two goals of police interrogation?

Answer 99

(1) The main goal is to obtain a confession which is powerful evidence in court.
(2) gain information to further the investigation such as location of evidence, co-conspirators, or exact details of crime

Question 100

Discuss historical Police interrogations (3)

Answer 100

(1) in the mid-1900s they used third-degree tactics such as whipping or rubber hoses and phonebooks
(2) 1980 stun guns used by NYPD
(3) today they use subtle psychological tactics and trickery such as lying about physical evidence, use of hypotheticals, implied threats to family members, or minimization of the seriousness of the crime

Question 101

Steps in the Reid Technique

9

Answer 101

(1) Direct positive confrontation - The interrogator considers whether the suspect is emotional or non-emotional
(2) theme development
(3) Do not allow denials
(4) overcoming objections
(5) retain suspect’s attention
(6) handling passiveness
(7) alternative questioning
(8) Relate offence details
(9) create written confession

Question 102

Step 1 in Reid Technique: Direct positive confrontation

4

Answer 102

1. State certainty in guilt
2. Use fabricated or real evidence
3. Pause, observe, repeat confrontation
4. Passive reaction = deception
5. The interrogator considers whether the suspect is emotional or non-emotional

Question 103

Emotional suspect

• feels
• interrogator approach
• appeal to

Answer 103

(1) Feels Distress and remorse
(2) interrogator approach is sympathetic
(3) appeal to the conscience

Question 104

Non-Emotional suspect

• feels
• interrogator approach
• appeal to

Answer 104

(1) feels nothing particularly
(2) The interrogator approach is factual analysis
(3) appeal to reasoning/common sense

Question 105

Theme development in the Reid technique (2)

Answer 105

1. Offer excuses/explanations for offence

2. Allow for justification and rationalization

Question 106

What are some possible themes for emotional suspects?

5

Answer 106

1. Anyone in this situation would have done the same
2. Minimize crime’s moral seriousness
3. Suggest morally acceptable reasons
4. Condemned others (for example the victims)
5. Praise and flattery

Question 107

Themes for non-emotional suspects (5)

Answer 107

1. Catch them in a lie
2. Get suspect associated with crime scene
3. Non-criminal intent behind act
4. No point in denying involvement
5. Play one co-offender off the other

Question 108

Step 3 in Reid Model: do not allow denials

4

Answer 108

1. Interrupt any attempted denials
2. Repeated denials = less likely to confess
3. An innocent subject will get very spontaneous, forceful, Eye contact
4. A guilty suspect will be hesitant and defensive

Question 109

Step 4 Reid Model - overcoming objections (3)

Answer 109

1. allow objection and return to theme
2. Innocent suspect continues with original denials
3. guilty suspect moves from denials to objections

Question 110

Step 5 of Reid model - retain suspect’s attention (2)

Answer 110

1. Deal with withdrawal by the suspect
2. Use a variety of behaviours to re-engage the suspect
   - move closer
   - lean forward
   - mention first name
   - touch lightly
   - make eye contact

Question 111

Step 6 of the Reid model - handling passiveness (4)

Answer 111

1. Suspect is about to give in and confess
2. Slumped shoulders
3. crying or blank stare
4. Focus on Main theme and urge suspect to come clean by using sympathy and understanding

Question 112

Step 7 of the Reid Model - alternative questioning (4)

Answer 112

1. Present 2 explanations for the crime: One reprehensible and one face-saving
2. Both produce a confession!
3. Most important component of Reid
   - problem for many suspects
4. Timing is critical

Question 113

What step in the Reid model is the most important and why?

Answer 113

Step 7 Alternative question because the suspect is broken down and and has to choose between these incriminating alternatives. if successful will get the confession.

Question 114

Step 8 of the Reid Model - Relate offence details

Answer 114

Garner Full details of the crime

Question 115

Step 9 of the Reid technique - create written confession(2)

Answer 115

1. Written and signed confession is more incriminating

2. Less important with videotaped confession

Question 116

What is the psychology behind the Reid Model? (2)

Answer 116

1. Confessing is difficult and unnatural as there are internal and external concerns
2. Goals are to reduce concerns through minimization and rationalizations

Question 117

Primacy effect

Answer 117

The information we learn first about another person disproportionately shapes our understanding of them afterward

Question 118

Why was the PEACE model introduced? (2)

Answer 118

(1) Created in the U.K. as a response to false confessions and poor interviewing generally
(2) more of information gathering rather than eliciting a confession

Question 119

Stage 1 - PEACE MODEL - Preparation & Planning (3)

Answer 119

(1) Interviewee characteristics
(2) Contribution to investigation
(3) Questions you want to ask

Question 120

Stage 2- PEACE MODE - Engage & Explain (4)

Answer 120

(1) Introduction
(2) Address needs (e.g. washroom, water)
(3) Reason, Rights, Route Map, and routines
(4) No confrontation or evidence up front

Question 121

Stage 3 Peace Model - Account (3)

Answer 121

(1) Get a free narrative - don’t interrupt
(2) Probe the account - open, probe, summarize
(3) Challenge in a calm manner if needed by using evidence and inquisitorial approach

Question 122

Stage 4 Peace Model - Closure (3)

Answer 122

(1) Review the account
(2) make sure the interviewee questions are answered
(3) Get/give contact information

Question 123

Stage 5 Peace Model - Evaluation (3)

Answer 123

(1) Consider info gained
(2) evaluate own performance
(3) Get supervisor to evaluate - should videotape all interviews

Question 124

Differences between Reid & PEACE model of interviewing

5

Answer 124

(1) PEACE is an open-minded approach and no attempt to detect deception and lets everyone tell their side of the story
(2) PEACE Ties person into story vs. presenting up-front. Gets person to tell their story and give as much detail as possible; if needed they can challenge at the end with the evidence they gained in the interview
(3) PEACE - Very effective at exposing inconsistencies because the person does not know what the police know thus, makes it very difficult to make up a story without any holes
(4) PEACE no coercive tactics - no minimization and maximization to try to pressure people which may provide less of a chance for false confessions
(5) PEACE not focused on confessions - goal is to get as much info as possible

Question 125

The Cognitive Interview (3)

Answer 125

(1) Memory is complex
(2) Ease of recall depends on overlap
(3) different retrieval cues for memory

Question 126

Limitations of Cognitive Interview (5)

Answer 126

(1) more difficult to conduct
(2) it takes longer and
(3) requires more effort
(4) Only useful for cooperative eyewitnesses
(5) it is very much about improving recall memory it doesn’t help with recognition memory

Question 127

Identify the two hypotheses in the study Who Can Catch a Liar.

Answer 127

(1) predicted that accurate observers would report using nonverbal clues more than would the inaccurate observers
(2) predicted a positive correlation between accuracy in detecting deceit and accuracy recognizing micro expressions of emotion

Question 128

Identify the various groups of professional lie catchers who participated in Ekman’s study (Who Can Catch a Liar).

(7)

Answer 128

(1) U.S Secret Service
(2) Federal polygraphers
(3) Judges
(4) Police
(5) Psychiatrists
(6) Special Interest group
(7) Students

Question 129

How was detecting deception measured in the study? Who Can Catch a Liar?

Answer 129

Consisted of 10 one-minute samples taken from 10 videotaped interviews, preceded by a practice item

Question 130

Which group of professional lie catchers was most accurate?

Answer 130

Secret Service

Question 131

What factors or variables were related to accuracy in detecting deception in Who Can Catch a Liar?

(3)

Answer 131

(1) More accurate lie detectors report using nonverbal as well as verbal clues to deceit
(2) Better able to interpret subtle facial expressions
(3) in some occupational groups lie catchers were younger

Question 132

What do you think are some limitations to this study (Who Can Catch a Liar)?

Answer 132

Findings are based on judgements of only one kind of deception, the concealment of strong negative emotions.

Question 133

What two structural aspects of a typical police interrogation are identified by Kassin (2015) as interesting?

Answer 133

(1) The fact that interrogation is, by definition, a guilt – presumptive process A theory–driven social interaction led by an authority figure who has formed a strong belief about the suspect, sometimes through a pre-interrogation interview, and who single-mindedly measures success by whether he or she is able to extract a confession. The guilt–presumption that accompanies the start of interrogation thus provides fertile ground for the operation of cognitive and behavioural confirmation biases.
(2) the “Milgramesque” nature of the process itself In that it elicits obedience. Like Milgram’s experiment in both venues, the subject is isolated without access to friends, family, or other means of social support – in a specially design space. Also, The subject is confronted by a figure of authority. Full obedience is achieved through the elicitation of gradually escalating acts of compliance.

Question 134

What is the false evidence effect?

Answer 134

Police lies about evidence can lead innocent people both to confess and to internalize the belief in their own guilt

Question 135

According to Kassin (2015), does a false confession have a corruptive effect on other evidence?

Answer 135

(1) confessions may also influence the way in which other evidence is interpreted for example, by tainting the perceptions of eyewitnesses, forensic scientists, and others
(2) A strong belief in a suspect’s guilt can also bias lay people’s judgements
(3) confessions can taint other evidence specifically, false confessions were accompanied by invalid or improper forensic science, mistaken eyewitness identifications and snitches or informants

Question 136

What legal and policy recommendations does Kassin (2015) offer based on existing research? (4)

Answer 136

(1) it appears Miranda warnings do not adequately protect the citizens who need it most – those accused of crimes they did not commit. Therefore, other safeguards are needed.
(2) reform designed to protect highly vulnerable suspect population such as juveniles, people with cognitive impairments or mental health problems that increase compliance tendencies and suggestibility
(3) ban the use of coercive police interrogation practices (eg. false evidence ploy, minimization tactics that imply promises leniency)
(4) video recording of the entire interrogation, not just the confession. And The camera adopt a neutral equal focus perspective that shows both the accused and his or her interrogators

Question 137

What are the 3 components or stages of the Reid techniques?

Answer 137

(1) factual analysis
(2) interviewing
(3) interrogation