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BIOL2204 > Module 17 > Flashcards

Module 17 Flashcards

1
Q

Sensing and signalling in vertebrates

A

Thermoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Photoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors
Electroreceptors
Nociceptors

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2
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Heat

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3
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Chemicals

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4
Q

Photoreceptors

A

Light

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5
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Pressure

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6
Q

Electroreceptors

A

Electric fields

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7
Q

Nociceptors

A

Pain

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8
Q

Vision

A

The detection of light and resolving the light reflected from an object into an image

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9
Q

Vision in water

A

Limited to a maximum range of 50m
Attenuates rapidly with distance and depth
Scattered by particles and water molecules

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10
Q

Vision in air

A

Attenuates and scatters far lower Bec cause of the lower density of air
Visual ranges in air are much greater

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11
Q

Structure of fish’s eye

A

Cornea
Lens
Retina

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12
Q

Human eye structure

A

Corneal
Lens
Retina
Iris
Pupil

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13
Q

Corneal

A

Substantial component of focus
Round shape and large difference in density between air and the cornea allows it to focus

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14
Q

Retina

A

Light is further focused into the retina by ciliary muscles that surround the lens
- either contract or relax, changing its shape

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15
Q

Iris

A

Controls the dilation of the pupil
Regulates the amount of light entering the eye
- During the day, the iris constricts the pupil so that the sensory cells in the retina are not overwhelmed by the sunlight

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16
Q

Pupil

A

At night, the pupil is opened by the iris to allow more light in

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17
Q

Aquatic systems - fish eyes

A

Cornea - contributes very little to focusing light because the density of water is almost identical to that of the flatter cornea
- light is reflected very little when it passes through it

Lens - do most of the focusing
- spherical in structure

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18
Q

Actinopterygian fishes

A

Focus light on the retina by moving the lens away from the pupil by contraction of the muscle or towards it by relaxation of the muscle under tension by the elastic ligament

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19
Q

Eyes in terrestrial vertebrates

A

Vision is blurred underwater - trouble focusing on objects
Marine mammals have more spherical lens
Birds have eyes that work both under water and in air

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20
Q

Rete mirabile

A

Miracle web of reticulating capillaries that amplify oxygen concentration in the blood
- oxygen rapidly passes down the concentration gradient into the eye tissues
- eyes require a lot of oxygen to function but contain few blood vessels as these would obscure vision
- rods and cones of the retina also require a large amount of energy to function rapidly and replace visual pigments

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21
Q

Vision is energy costly

A

Vertebrates that live in dark places either have eyes that are rudimentary or lost altogether
In vertebrates where other senses dominate, the eyes are smaller with vision that is less acute
Animals that live in the twilight zone of the deep see have eyes that are orientated upward to contrast prey against the light surface waters
- tend to have fewer cone cells for colour vision and more rod cells for black and white vision
- have a tapetum lucid that lies behind the retina and reflects light back into the retina to enhance vision in the dark

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22
Q

Sound waves

A

compressional waves or waves of pressure
- pass their energy particle to particle by making them oscillates as the wave progresses

23
Q

Sound in air

A

Air:
- the molecules are less densely packed so sound travels faster in water than in air
- low frequency sounds attenuate less rapidly in water than in air
- low frequency sounds attenuate more rapidly than high frequency sounds

24
Q

Sound waves in water

A

Detected by the ear and the lateral line system
- only present in fishes and the larval stages of amphibians

Water currents can be detected by the lateral line canals on the head and body
- indicate the movement of masses of particles by fish swimming or the wake of a fish swimming away

25
Q

Lateral line

A

Detects acceleration of water due to a close object

26
Q

Human ear

A

External ear - only involved with hearing
Middle ear - only involved with hearing
Inner ear - involved in hearing and maintaining your equilibrium
- malleus
- incus
- stapes

27
Q

Hearing in aquatic systems

A

Semicircular canals have hair cells that allow for hearing in some species
- This is a poor form of hearing because they rely on cilia in the sensory epithelium being deflected by sound waves that pass readily through their tissues
- Also used for gyroscopic orientation and balance – each lies in a different plane in the X, Y, and Z axes

Gnathostomes – ear bones of calcium carbonate evolved called otoliths
- Three pairs of otoliths on each side of the head and lies at the base of one of their three semicircular canals
- Much denser than the surrounding tissues and deflected relative to other tissues of the fish
- Ear bones lag when the fish changes direction or accelerates – inertia bends sensory hair cells that connect the otolith to the sensory epithelium
- Those signals then go to the brain where they

28
Q

Swim bladder

A

Fish can only amplify sound in their swim bladder
In some fishes this is linked to the inner ears to achieve a similar result to the amplifying levers in our middle ear
These structures also respond to gravity

29
Q

Summary of hearing in fish

A

Sound moves slower in air compared with water, which allows non-aquatic vertebrates to more accurately sense the direction that sounds are coming from
Sound waves in water are detected by the ear and the lateral line system, however the latter is only found in select animals
As the density of water is similar to fish’s body tissues, it makes hearing more challenging
Some fish rely on cilia to hear – these are located in their semicircular canals and deflect the sound waves as they pass through

30
Q

Hearing in terrestrial vertebrates

A

Because sound moves much more slowly in air than it does in water, non-aquatic vertebrates can use the time difference between sound arriving at one ear and the other to sense the direction of that sound

31
Q

Sensory cells in a canal of lateral line

A

Have openings on the body surface that are stimulated by the displacement of water in the canal
- in still water settings these cells can occur in grooves rather than enclosed in a canal

32
Q

Smell in fish

A

Fish have paired nares through which water flows through
- contains chemosensory organs
Each pair has an incurrent nostril and an excurrent nostril
Nares are not connected to the buccopharyngeal cavity in fishes

33
Q

Smell in tetrapods

A

The nares are connected to the mouth
This allows the nose to be used for both breathing and taste

34
Q

Smell in higher vertebrates

A

Have paired nostrils that communicate with the buccopharyngeal cavity
- inhaled air passed over the chemosensory field
- needs to be kept moist
Smell carried by air can diffuse quickly on air currents - used to detect prey and predators by some animals

35
Q

Taste

A

In moist environments, chemicals are dissolved in solutions which surround the animal
- aquatic vertebrates can therefore have taste buds on the skin surface because it is in direct contact with the water

Terrestrial vertebrates have taste buds restricted to the tongue
- this area is moist and provides an important first step in rejecting or accepting material for further processing

36
Q

Electric field detection

A

Detecting electric fields is produced by the metabolic activity of buried prey and arose independently in several vertebrate groups
- specialised sensory cell at the end of a canal filled with aa conductive jelly that opens via a pore to the skin surface
- both systems rely upon the creation of a potential difference between the pore and the sensory epithelium

Canals are longer I the tissues of marine fish as seawater is highly conductive
- in freshwater, which is less conductive, fishes have much thicker skin to reduce water loss through osmosis
- canals can therefore be very short

37
Q

Ampullae of Lorenzi

A

Found in many vertebrates and is involved in electrical field detection
Gives the ability to locate living prey buried in the seabed using the electric field that is generated by the muscle of the prey

38
Q

Unusual and extreme senses - Freshwater pike and marine barracudas

A

Vision systems show remarkable similarity due to convergence
Both stalk prey before attacking at a lightening speed from close range
Both have good stereoscopic vision, which allows them to judge precisely the distance to their prey

39
Q

Unusual and extreme senses - Dolphins and bats

A

Use echolocation to find their prey
High pitched sounds – clicks – are projected anteriorly
Sounds are reflected from the prey
Dolphins – clicks are received by lower jaw
Bats – reflected sounds are received by the ears

40
Q

Unusual and extreme senses - Varanid lizard

A

Uses chemosensory cells in the roof to detect prey odours in the air or on the ground
Moist tongue is used to gather chemicals which are delivered to Jacobson’s organ

41
Q

Properties that influence light

A

Density – light moving between media of different densities is refracted so the object is not where you think it is
Turbidity – light is rapidly attenuated and scattered in cloudy water
Immersion
Salinity – affects density of water
Gravity
Temperature – pressure

42
Q

Properties of the environment

A

Density
Turbidity
Immersion
Salinity
Gravity
Temperature

43
Q

Fish

A

Aquatic vertebrate with gills, appendages in the form of fins, and scales of dermal origin

44
Q

Fish - paraphyletic collection of taxa

A

Hagfishes
Lampreys
Sharks
Rays
Ray-finned fish
Coelacanths
Lungfish

45
Q

Key adaptations that allow fish to respire and osmoregulate

A

Gill cover – Operculum:
- A bony structure that acts as a hard structure
Opens and closes – flushes out water through the gills
Ram ventilation:
- The mouth is open at the same time as the operculum
- Allows water to pass through the gills
- Adaptation for their fast-paced swimming
Gill arch
Gill filament:
- Water runs through this structure away from the gill arch
Gill raker
Gill lamella

46
Q

Osmoregulation

A

Balance – salt is a limiting factor
- Saltwater fish lose salt through their skin
- Saltwater fish have a lower salt concentration
- Chloride cells pump water out of the fish
Freshwater fish have a high salt concentration
- Chloride cells in fins pump water into the fish
- Dehydrated when they are placed in water

47
Q

Ultimate condition of synapomorphies in fish

A

Notochord - vertebrae (discs)
Dorsal hollow nerve cord - dorsal nerve cord
Pharyngeal slits - gills
endostyle - endostyle

48
Q

Hagfishes and Lampreys

A

Hagfishes and lampreys are cited as examples of convergent evolution
- have similar body plans (long, eel-like body) with no scales, and lack paired appendages. - both are carnivorous, except hagfish are detritivores whereas lampreys are parasitic feeders
- hagfish are suited to life in darkness by lacking eyes and instead relying on a nostril structure that lies atop their head structure
- lampreys are adapted to a parasitic lifestyle by having round mouths and horny teeth made of keratin. This structure allows them to attach to the outside of other fishes whereupon they gouge a hole and drink their vital juices or to move rocks when building nests

49
Q

Shark detection at different distances

A

Long distance would be at least 1km, where sharks usually detect prey from their scent using their nares
- The nares are usually spaced apart for stereo olfaction in order to pick up the direction of scents

Moderate distance is at least 50-200m away from the prey, and sharks use their lateral lines which contain mechanoreceptors.
- These are tiny hairs that detect slight pressure difference in the water
- Splashing displaces the water which hits these tiny hairs

At a close distance, sharks use their eyes to visualise the prey
- Nictating membranes move over their eyes as they attack to protect their eyes, or sharks will also role their eyes back
- Electroreceptors are also used at this distance on the anterior end to sense electrical pulses from the pacemaker cells in a working heart of prey

50
Q

Ram ventilation

A

Swimming with mouth open
Adaptation for fast-swimming fish that allows water to pass through the gills

51
Q

Shovelnose rays versus Chimeras

A

Shovelnose rays have no barb but are otherwise similar to stingrays - have ventral nose slits, have spiracles like most benthic shark species
- They suck up stand and water through their mouths and respire sand, as well as use this mechanism to dig deep down
Both have dorsal fins – these are however retractable in chimeras
Both have a lateral line

Chimera:
Have a fleshy epirculum which acts as a much that has the same as spiracles – can open and close and do active pumping of water
They have 4 gill rakes whereas sharks have 5-7
Nose also has electroreceptors – lateral line around their nose is really open – Ampullae of lorizini pores are large – do not have to worry about large wave action in their ecology
Big eyes like sharks

52
Q

Red muscle versus white muscles in fish

A

Red muscle indicates a lot of aerobic respiration
- fish that typically move fast through water and travel a lot are made up more of red muscle
White muscle indicates anaerobic respiration – found in fish that do not move a lot and only need oxygen for short bursts of energy

53
Q

Gas bland

A

a glandular structure found in the wall of the swim-bladder of bony fish
It is richly supplied with capillary blood vessels, and is capable of secreting gas (mainly oxygen) into the swim-bladder. This increases the internal pressure

54
Q

Swim bladder

A

located in the body cavity
It contains gas (usually oxygen) and enables the fish to maintain its depth without floating upward or sinking

BIOL2204 (16 decks)

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