Module 12 - Gender Development Flashcards
sex
categories distinguishing between biological males and females on the basis of characteristics such as hormones, reproductive organs, sex chromosomes, etc.
- fuzzy with lots of exceptions
gender
social categories encompassing expectations of behaviour, social roles, and other characteristics include men, women, boys, girls and non-binary categories
- fuzzy with lots of exceptions
cisgender
indentifying with the gender that ones cultures typically assigns on the basis of ones biological sex
transgender
indentifying with a gender other than what ones culture typically assigns on the basis of sex
gender binary
classification of gender into two opposing categories (men and women(
non-binary
people whose gender does not fit into the gender binary prescribed by many cultures
challenges to the gender binary
- there aren’t men and women’s brains (more differences along individual brains)
- there arent strictly male and female hormones (more variance within individuals even when there is an average difference in hormone levels)
- most people exhibit a mix of gender-typical behaviours (behaviours are gender-typical not gender exclusive)
- The gender binary is far from universal
- beliefs about gender are learned about childhood
gender typing
learning (direct and indirectly) about gender roles and expectations from social experiences
gender typed
behaviours that are believed to be stereotypical for someone of a certain gender
gender nonconforming
someone whose interest, beliefs, or behaviour do not align with the gender their culture assumes they belong to
androgens
class of hormones occurring at higher levels in males than in females (testosterone)
- high levels lead to masculinization of the body and brain (triggers the production by Y chromosome at 6 weeks)
intersex conditions
having charcterisitcs assocaited wiht the opposite sex or with both sexes, or having partial developments of ones own genetic sex’s characterisitcs
Congenital adenral hyperplasia (CAH)
- genetic condition resulting in high levels of androgen production in prenatal development
- occurs in both genetic females and males
- masculization of the external genitalia (enlarged clit but still have female reproductive structures)
- affects play behaviour in childhood
androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
- genetic conditon resulting in androgen receptors malfunction
- androgens are produced but don’t trigger the usual changes in sexual differentiation
- genetic males develop like females (female external genitalia but without the reproductive structures)
- affect play behaviour in childhood and they - -
- typically identify as a girl
gender schemas
- organized understadning of gender
- developped between 18-24 months
- they are surprised when people do actions that defy gender conventions
- by 2.5 can sort objects by gender
- by 3 years they can use gender labels spontaneously
gender labeling
- stereotypically labelling increases over the course of preschool years
- eventually with start to label their own gender
- don’t exhibit belief in gender constancy
gender constancy
belief that if you change your appearance of behaviour, your gender changes as well
gender-typed behaviours
- by age 2, prefer gender types preferences (boy toys over girl toys)
- genetic females with CAH - like boy toys more
- genetic males with AIS - like girl toys more
- transgender children - self-identified gender play
gender segregation
tendency to affiliate with same-gender peers and avoid other-gender peers
- increase between ages 3 and 6 (cis-gender study)
- gender in-groups reinforce gender stereotyping and conformity
- more time with the child of a given group, more gender-typed behaviour
- conflicts between nonconforming interests and pressure to conform put children at risk for anxiety/depression
gender in middle childhood
- by age 6, see gender as a stable aspect of identity (gender constancy)
- still stereotypically thinking but more flexible and able to recognize exceptions
- trans children are less stereotypical in thinking about gender (and so are their siblings, beliefs about gender are learned)
0 by age 9, children see gender as a socially constructed category (aware that there can be social repercussions for violating gender norms, recognize gender discriminations, also the time when children exclude others on the basis of gender)
gender in adolescents
- time of both gender-role intensification and gender-role flexibility
- some teens become increasingly concerned with adhering to genre roles
- increases in the rate of gender discrimination and harassment
- for many, this is a time of identity flexibility and exploration (more amongst girls than boys)
- increased stigmatization when their community is highly heteronormative
interpreting gender differences in cisgender
- our society suggest that cisgnder boys and girls are fundamentally different from each other –> both most difference are very small
- on average, genetic males tend to be physically stronger and faster than genetic females (effect size increase with the onset of puberty)
effect size
the magnitude of the differences between two groups’ averages and the amount of overlap in their distributions
- averages difference do not hold for all comparisons between members of the two groups (not individuals)
intelligent and acheivement
- boys and girls are hihgly similaire in general intelligence
- specific difference are exaggerated and often damaging to children outcomes
- girls tend to achieve greater success academically than boys (slightly higher grades complete high school and uni)
verbal skills
- girls tend to develop some langauge skills slightly earlier that boys
- girls tend to outperform boys in reading and writing
- boys are more likely to encounter speech and reading related difficulites
stem-realted achievement
- boys tend to outperform girls in standardized math tests (gap has shruken a lot recently)
- boys slightly outperform girls in mental spatialrotations taks and math testing
- boys are overepresented in engineering and CS where girl are in bio and biomed sciences
biological and hormonal differences
- prenatal androgen exposure assocaited with greater spatial abilities
- genetic amles and females exposed to higher levels of androgens
- genetic males with AIS tend to score lower on spatial ability tests than genetic females
- hard to disentagle from experiences
cognitive and motivational influecnes
- children are motivated to achieve in areas in which they are expected to succeed (internalized gender stereotypes impact motivation and performance - self-fulfilling prophecy)
- gender difference in interest and beliefs about ability predict alter achievement and career goals
social and cultural influences
- parents and teachers can communicate stereotypes to children (explicitly or implicitly)
- peers can reinforce norms and stereotypes
- cultural norms set children’s expectations (important of diversity in representation)
interpersonal goals and communication
- boys and girsl are similiar in talkativeness
- girls are more likely yo share personal thoughts and feeling. more likely to be more collaborative and affliative
- boys may be more assertive and competitive
aggression
- boys are more aggressive (widespread belief) but it depends on what kind of aggression
direct:
- boys are more than girls
- both physical nd verbal is higher for boys than girls in childhood and adulthood
- declines with age (greater decrease for girls)
indirect:
- no gender differences
- when girls are aggressive, tend to use indirect over direct aggression
- boys will use both types
direct and indirect aggression
direct: overt physical or verbal cts intended to cause harm
indirect: damaging a person’s social standing through gossip, exclusion,etc.
where do the differences in aggression come from?
biological:
- boys tend to have more difficulty regulating emotional arousal
social motivation:
- girls tend to exhibit more empathy
- girls tend to value affiliating and harmony over social dominance
adult set standards:
- boys will be boys
- study with children in snowsuits engaging in playful fighting
- when adults were told it was boys, they rated the behaviour to be less aggressive compared to when they were told it was girls
- children view physical aggression as more acceptable when perpetrated by boys
parenting:
- harsh parenting and inconsistent monitoring is associated with greater levels of aggression
media:
- violent media associated with physical violence (bobo studies)
- boys tend to watch/play with violent media more often
- girls tend to prefer shows featuring indirect aggression
culture and experiences:
- lax attitudes and witnessing violence increase aggression, particularly in boys