module 11

Question 1

What is transgender/trans?

Answer 1

umbrella term for ppl whose gender identity differs from (usually binary) natal sex they were assigned at birth

Question 2

What is genderqueer?

Answer 2

gender identity that does not conform to traditional binary (male/female) gender norms

Question 3

How do children think about their gender?

Answer 3

• if identity consistent since young until age 12, unlikely it will change
• if changes at age 12, may experience some gender fluidity
• 3 qualities to look at when child communicates gender identity
• many children think/describe themselves in terms of external cues:
  
  • physical characteristics (sex): e.g. anatomy
  • behaviour (gender expression): e.g. choice of clothing, type of play, tv shows

Question 4

What are the 3 qualities to look at when children communicate gender identity?

Answer 4

1. consistency
2. persistency
3. insistency

Question 5

What are the roles of biology (nature) in the development of gender identity? (neuroscience approaches)

Answer 5

focus on testing how hormones & brain functioning are related to variations in gender development

• hormones & brain functioning: gender differences in behaviour reflect different ratios of male & female sex hormones
• sex/gender is continuous variable (biologically)

Question 6

What are the roles of biology (nature) in the development of gender identity? (evolutionary approaches)

Answer 6

suggests that sex differences in behaviour emerged b/c they offer reproductive advantages:

- males’ propensity for impulsivity & physical aggression may have provided them w/ reproductive advantages & in hunting
- females’ tendency to build strong alliances w/ other females could have ensured assistance w/ childcare, benefiting offspring

Question 7

What are the roles of socialisation (nurture) in the development of gender identity? (cognitive & motivational influences)

Answer 7

• boys may be more likely to appraise conflicts as competitions that require use of direct aggression
• emphasising intimacy & nurturance, girls may be more likely to view conflicts as threats that need to be resolved thru compromise to preserve harmony

Question 8

What are the roles of socialisation (nurture) in the development of gender identity? (biology & parental)

Answer 8

biology:
- body increases production of testosterone in response to perceived threats & challenges and increase can lead to more aggressive behaviour (males)

parental & other adult influences:
- parents tend to be more tolerant of aggression in boys than girls

Question 9

What are the roles of socialisation (nurture) in the development of gender identity? (others)

Answer 9

• peers: aggressive children typically rejected in both male & female peer groups
• media: boys exposed to more violence than girls
• culture: levels of aggression considered normal vary from one area to another, but boys show more than girls

Question 10

What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?

Answer 10

• group of inherited disorders
• surplus in steroid hormones (cortisol & aldosterone), which leads to overproduction of androgen (male sex hormone)
• 1 in 10-20,000 births
• females: ambiguous genitalia, “masculine” physical traits
• males: enter puberty much earlier

Question 11

What are examples of CAH?

Answer 11

1. CAH girls/CAH induced (androgens in pregnancy):
   
   • more time w/ “male” toys
   • greater preference for male playmates
   • reduced gender identity
   • less satisfaction w/ gender
2. female rats & rhesus macaques treated w/ testosterone
   
   • increased male-typical sexual behaviour, rough & tumble play, activity level, aggression
3. in humans: androgen reduced during pregnancy
   
   • females: feminine clothing, less ‘tomboyish’
4. sex/gender is continuous variable (biologically)

Question 12

What are some of claims about gender made without scientific backing?

Answer 12

• children are “confused” and therefore need therapy
• children are “delay[ed]” in understanding of gender in part b/c of behavior of parents
• children merely saying they are “opposite” gender, much as they might say on any given day that they are dinosaur or princess

Question 13

What did researchers discovered on their implicit measures of gender identity and preferences?

Answer 13

Gender-identity IAT:

• transgender children implicitly identified w/ expressed gender
• control participants implicitly identified w/ natal sex
• siblings identified w/ natal sex

Question 14

What did researchers discovered on their explicit measures of preferences?

Answer 14

Explicit gender peer preferences:
- transgender participants showed tendency to favor peers of their expressed gender, as did control participants & siblings

Explicit object preferences:

• transgender children preferred objects endorsed by children of their expressed gender
• control participants & siblings preferred objects endorsed by members of their natal sex

Question 15

What did researchers discovered on their explicit measures of gender identity?

Answer 15

• majority indicated that explicit internal gender identity corresponded to sex (for control participants) or expressed gender (for transgender participants)
• minority of children chose “neither,” “both,” “it changes over time,” or “I don’t know” in response to questions abt internal gender identity

Question 16

How did transgender youth compare to cisgender kids on these measures? (gender identity)

Answer 16

Gender-identity IAT:

• considered in terms of expressed gender, transgender did not differ from cisgender
• considered in terms of natal sex, transgender differed from cisgender

Explicit gender identity:
- transgender perceptions did not differ significantly from cisgender

Question 17

How did transgender youth compare to cisgender kids on these measures? (explicit preferences)

Answer 17

Explicit gender peer preferences:

• considered according to expressed gender, transgender did not differ from cisgender
• considered according to natal sex, transgender differed from cisgender

Explicit object preferences:

• considered according to expressed gender, transgender did not differ significantly from cisgender
• considered according to natal sex, transgender differed significantly from cisgender

Question 18

What does it say about the likely explanation for transgender identity?

Answer 18

• more-controllable self-report measures & less controllable implicit measures: transgender: indication that they thought of themselves in terms of expressed gender
• responses indistinguishable from cisgender control groups, when matched by gender identity
• preference for peers & objects endorsed by peers who share expressed gender, explicit & implicit identity that align w/ expressed gender, and strong implicit preference for expressed gender
• transgender not confused, delayed, showing gender atypical responding, pretending, or oppositional—show responses entirely typical & expected for children w/ their gender identity

Question 19

What is sex?

Answer 19

physiological traits:

- chromosomes: XX, XY, mosaic (XX & XY)
- hormones: ratio of androgens to estrogens
- anatomy: internal & external reproductive organs (gonads, genitalia)

other terms:

- natal sex (sex at birth)
- sex assigned at birth

Question 20

What are variants of sex?

Answer 20

3 physiological categories at birth

1. female
2. male
3. intersex (male & female physiological traits):
    - usually identified by external reproductive organs
    - physicians traditionally assign as either female/male at birth
    - surgery performed to make reproductive organs consistent w/ (physician-) selected sex

Question 21

What is gender identity?

Answer 21

internal sense of own maleness or femaleness or “other-”ness