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MFS Orientation > Module 10 > Flashcards

Module 10 Flashcards

1
Q

What is radiant energy?

A
  • Radiation refers to the emission and propagation of energy through matter or space by electromagnetic disturbances, found within the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation.
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2
Q

Describe the electromagnetic spectrum.

A
  • The longer wavelengths of electromagnetic energy that we are familiar with include visible light, infrared and ultraviolet rays. These are characterized by having low penetrating power. Microwaves and infrared radiation are two examples of the longer wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum.
  • Examples of short wavelengths include X-rays, beta rays and gamma rays, which can be employed as energy sources in food irradiation since they have a good penetrating power. These forms of energy are referred to as ionizing energy.
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3
Q

How do microwaves work?

A
  • Microwaves are used in food for their heating properties.
  • The microwaves travel in straight lines and pass through air, glass, paper and plastic, but are reflected by metals.
  • They are readily absorbed by water (polar molecule), causing it to vibrate.
  • Heat is generated by the intermolecular friction generated from the vibrating water (polar) molecules in food.
  • Microwaves are absorbed by the food up to a depth of 5 to 7.5 cm.
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4
Q

Give examples of infrared energy used in the real world.

A
  • Infrared energy can generate heat.
  • They can reach temperatures above 100°C.
  • Typical examples of infrared energy can be seen in ovens, toasters, and even those “infrared” lamps used to keep food warm.
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5
Q

What is food irradiation?

A
  • Food Irradiation is the application of radiation, in the form of ionizing energy, to foods.
  • According to Health Canada, Food Irradiation means “the treatment of food with ionizing radiation” from the following sources:
    • Gamma radiation from a Cobalt-60 or Cesium-137
    • X-rays generated from a machine source operated at or below 5 MeV
    • Electrons generated from a machine source operated at or below 10 MeV
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6
Q

What is gamma radiation?

A
  • Electromagnetic radiation that has very short wavelengths, similar to ‘short’ x-rays.
  • Isotopes such as Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137 emit gamma radiation as they disintegrate.
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7
Q

What are x-rays?

A
  • Electromagnetic radiations that are highly energetic and of short wavelength.
  • X-rays are produced by machines that emit a beam of fast electrons which hit a metal target in a vacuum.
  • These machines emit radiation only when the machines are turned on.
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8
Q

What is an electron beam?

A
  • Produced with high-energy (speed) electrons or by an electron beam accelerator.
  • Electron beam accelerators need only electricity to operate and produce no waste materials.
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9
Q

What is the Gray?

A
  • A unit of energy absorbed by a food irradiated with ionizing radiation.
  • One thousand grays equals one kilogray (kGy).
  • Most of the ionizing radiation processes permitted around the world involve absorbed doses of <10 kGy.
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10
Q

What is the Rad?

A
  • A unit to express the radiation absorbed dose (rad), where 100 rads = 1 Gy
  • However, the preferred unit is kGy
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11
Q

What is the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited?

A
  • A Federal crown corporation that is a leading agency in the development of food irradiators that use cobalt-60 as the energy source.
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12
Q

What is the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission?

A
  • Regulates the use of nuclear energy and material in Canada

Formerly the Atomic Energy Control Board

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13
Q

How is Cobalt-60 produced?

A
  • In Candu reactors
  • Contained within stainless steel rods that are used to control the rate of nuclear fission and is not extracted from spent nuclear fuel.
  • The cobalt-60 pellets within the rods are recovered and then reassembled in stainless steel rods to be used as the energy source in food irradiators
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14
Q

Where are the food irradiation plants in Canada?

A
  • Most of the irradiation facilities in Canada process medical and personal care supplies.
  • MDS Nordion (Laval, Quebec) and Iotron (Port Coquitlam, BC) process some dry food ingredients.
  • The former uses gamma rays, while the latter uses electron beam technology.
  • The Canadian Irradiation Centre (CIC) is a training centre operated as a joint venture by MDS Nordion and the Université du Québec, Institut Armand-Frappier (IAF).
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15
Q

What is the basis of preservation of food by irradiation?

A
  • The ability of the absorbed quanta of energy to dislodge electrons from molecules with the concomitant creation of free radicals without inducing radioactivity in the food.

When ionizing energy from a permitted source for food use is absorbed by food and collides with a molecule or atom, an ion-pair is produced if the energy from the collision is sufficient to dislodge an electron from an atomic orbit. This phenomenon can lead to the breaking up of one or more bonds between atoms in the molecule, leading to new molecular fragments possessing unshared electrons (free radicals). Because of the unshared electron, free radicals are extremely reactive and tend to react with other free radicals or other molecules with unshared electrons.

It is believed that only one out of every six billion chemical bonds in bacteria or food molecules are broken by irradiation. However, the formation of ion pairs and free radicals, the reaction of free radicals with one another or other molecules, and the chemical and physical phenomena that occur as a consequence of these events form the mechanisms for the inactivation of microorganisms, enzymes and alterations of food constituents during food irradiation.

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16
Q

Describe the indirect effects of ionizing radiation.

A
  • Hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide and hydroperoxy free radicals are produced when ionizing energy is absorbed by foods (fruits, vegetables, meats, fish) that contain substantial quantities of water.
  • Figure 10.3 shows the reactions of hydrogen (H) and hydroxyl (OH) free radicals produced by gamma irradiation of water molecules.
  • These free radicals only exist for about 0.0001 seconds but generate hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is the antimicrobial agent that kills bacteria, yeasts, and moulds in foods.
  • In many cases, the free radicals are formed within the microbial cells.
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17
Q

Describe the direct effects of ionizing radiation.

A
  • Microorganisms may also be killed by a “direct effect” of the ionizing energy upon genetic material within the microbial cells that leads to the death of the microorganism.
  • The damage occurring from ionizing radiation can be random and extensive, making DNA repair near impossible.
  • In some cases, even relatively small changes in the DNA can destroy bacterial cells, and the disruption of genetic material in living cells by irradiation also enables the destruction of insects, inactivation of parasites, delaying of ripening, and prevention of sprouting.
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18
Q

Are free radicals unique to irradiated food?

A
  • Free radical formation is not unique to foods that have been irradiated with ionizing energy.
  • For example, oxidative reactions in foods containing unsaturated fats also involve free radical formation, and free radicals are also formed during the Maillard browning reactions.
  • Free radicals are also produced within our bodies and other living tissues during normal metabolism.
  • Mechanisms (chemical and enzymatic) for the inactivation of free radicals exist within the human body and other living tissues.
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19
Q

Does irradiated food become radioactive?

A
  • Irradiation using approved sources provides enough energy to knock an electron from the outer orbit (that is why it is termed “ionizing radiation” or “irradiation”); however, it does not have sufficient energy to penetrate the nucleus and eject neutrons, which would be required to induce radioactivity.
  • Therefore food will NOT become radioactive by irradiation conducted using approved energy sources and within the approved limit.
  • To become radioactive, food would need to be exposed to a minimum of 15 MeV of energy.
  • The energy output of Cobalt-60, Cesium-137, and electron beam accelerators is carefully regulated.
  • The maximum energy outputs allowed are 5 or 10 MeV, which are too low to induce radioactivity in food.

You may be interested to know that all foods are naturally radioactive, although of course at a very low level. This low background level of radioactivity arises from the naturally occurring isotopes in elements such as carbon, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur.

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20
Q

Describe the radiolysis of water during irradiation.

A
  • Radiolysis of water can produce reactive hydroxyl radicals, or reactions in foods of peroxides and peroxide free radicals with fats, leading to lipid oxidation (rancidity).
  • Some vitamins are also sensitive to radiation.
  • The extent of effects on both macronutrients and micronutrients are, of course, dependent on the dose of irradiation.
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21
Q

What are the two groups of compounds (radiolytic products) that have generated concern in irradiation of foods?

A
  • Hydrocarbons
  • 2-Alkylcyclobutanones
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22
Q

Of the two groups of radiolytic compounds that are produced during food irradiation, which is considered a ‘unique radiolytic product’?

A
  • 2-alkylcyclobutanones
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23
Q

What are the opinions of Health Canada and of the European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Food on potential toxicity concerns based on mutagenicity/genotoxicity studies?

A
  • Both Health Canada and the European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Food have reviewed mutagenicity/genotoxicity studies and found no significant toxicity concerns with irradiated foods.
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24
Q

What was the role of Health Canada in the mutagenic/genotoxic studies?

A
  • Health Canada conducted extensive reviews and evaluations of the mutagenic/genotoxic studies to assess the safety of irradiated foods.
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25
Q

Which nutrients are less sensitive to irradiation? Which are most sensitive?

A
  • Less sensitive: proteins, carbohydrates, and minerals
  • More sensitive: vitamins, particularly vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin E, and some B vitamins
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26
Q

What effects could irradiation have on sensory properties?

A
  • Irradiation can cause changes in flavor, color, texture, and odor of foods, although the extent varies depending on the type of food and the irradiation dose used.
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27
Q

What are 3 proposed methods of minimizing undesirable changes during food irradiation?

A
  • Irradiation in frozen state
  • Irradiation in a vacuum
  • Addition of free radical scavengers
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28
Q

How does irradiation in the frozen state minimize undesirable changes during food irradiation?

A
  • When water is frozen, free radicals are produced to a lesser extent
  • The frozen state will delay free radical diffusion and migration to food constituents beyond the site of free radical production
  • However, D10 values also change as the product freezes.
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29
Q

What are D10 values?

A
  • D10 values are the dose of irradiation required to reduce a microbial population by 90%
  • Lower D10 values indicate greater sensitivity to radiation
  • Factors affecting D10 values include organism type, cell age, presence of oxygen, and the physical and chemical composition of the food.

Recall D10 values change as the water in the product freezes. For example, ground turkey’s D10 value increases as its temperature decreases, indicating higher resistance at lower temperatures (e.g., from 0.16 kGy at 30°C to 0.29 kGy at –30°C).

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30
Q

How does irradiation in a vacuum minimize undesirable changes during food irradiation?

A
  • Removing O2 from the system may minimize reactions; however,
  • Removal of oxygen could also confer a protective effect on microorganisms
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31
Q

How does the addition of free radical scavengers minimize undesirable changes of food during irradiation?

A
  • Ascorbic acid has a great affinity for free radicals
  • Addition of free radical scavengers to food systems results in consumption of the free radicals via reactions between the scavengers and the free radical(s).
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32
Q

What is the purpose of a dose of <1 kGy?

A
  • Inhibit sprouting of vegetables (potatoes)
  • Kill insect eggs, larvae (wheat)
  • Slow ripening (bananas)
  • Inactivate parasites (pork)
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33
Q

What is the purpose of a dose of 1 to 10 kGy?

A
  • eliminate disease-causing bacteria and parasites (chicken; ground beef; fruit and veg)
  • decrease or eliminate spoilage causing microorganisms (e.g., mould) (fresh strawberries)
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34
Q

What is the purpose of a dose of irradiation of 10 to 50 kGy?

A
  • decontaminate food ingredients and additives (enzymes and spices)
  • commercially sterilize food (sterilized hospital diets; foods for use on missions in outer space)
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35
Q

What is radicidation?

A
  • A process designed to kill or inhibit disease-causing microorganisms (such as vegetative bacteria, yeasts, and parasites) in food.
  • Absorbed doses are often below 10 kGy.
  • Foods that have been treated with a radicidation dose of ionizing energy must still be stored under refrigeration since all spoilage-causing microorganisms would not have been killed.
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36
Q

What is radurization?

A
  • A form of radiation pasteurization, with the objective of killing the majority of spoilage-causing microorganisms and parasites so that the storage life of the food can be extended during refrigerated storage.
  • For example, treatment of fish to kill most of the spoilage-causing psychrotrophic bacteria would extend the storage life of the fish at refrigerated storage temperatures.
  • Absorbed doses for radurization are below 10 kGy (often < 1 kGy).
37
Q

What is radappertization?

A
  • Equivalent to thermal commercial sterilization, and involves the treatment of food with an absorbed dose of ionizing energy such that disease-causing microorganisms and all spoilage-causing microorganisms that are capable of growing at ambient temperatures (the storage conditions) are inactivated.
  • Absorbed doses are greater than 10 kGy (usually 20, 30 kGy).
  • Note that in Canada, doses above 10 kGy are NOT permitted!
38
Q

What are the five factors that need to be considered and controlled during food irradation?

A
  1. Safety and wholesomeness of the foods
  2. Resistance to food irradiation
  3. Resistance of microorganisms to ionizing energy
  4. Resistance of enzymes to ionizing energy
  5. Cost
39
Q

Which four principles do the issues of safety and wholesomeness of irradiated foods revolve around?

A
  • Radiological safety: ensuring that foods do not become radioactive during irradiation
  • Toxicological safety: ensuring that production of toxic and possibly carcinogenic substances does not occur
  • Microbiological safety: ensuring the efficacy of radiation process with respect to the ability of the prescribed absorbed dose to kill disease-causing microorganisms that could be in the food
  • Nutritional adequacy: ensuring that undue losses of nutrients do not occur as a consequence of the treatment of the food with ionizing energy.

The absorbed dose must be below 10 kGy and not contain toxicants at undesirable levels.

40
Q

Describe the resistance of foods to ionizing energy.

A
  • Not all foods are amenable to preservation by treatment with ionizing energy.
  • The quality of some foods may be adversely affected by irradiation, depending on the dose, temperature and conditions during irradiation.
  • For example, colour, flavour or textural changes may result after exposure of food components to ionizing energy.
  • Lipids or fats are particularly susceptible to oxidative reactions triggered by radiolytic reactions and the presence of free radicals.
  • Losses of some vitamins may also occur; vitamins A, C, E and B1 (thiamine) are the most sensitive, particularly at higher doses and in foods packaged while exposed to the air.

These changes may be minimized by irradiating foods in the frozen state, in a vacuum, and/or with the addition of radical scavengers such as ascorbic acid. Additional strategies include applying the lowest effective irradiation dose and choosing appropriate packaging in terms of moisture and oxygen barriers.

41
Q

Describe the resistance of microorganisms to ionizing energy.

A
  • Analogous to thermal processing where Clostridium botulinum is the most heat resistant pathogen, C. botulinum spores are the most radiation-resistant forms of pathogenic bacteria.
  • With food irradiation, we calculate the absorbed dose of ionizing energy that produces a 90% decrease in the microbial population (D10 values).
  • To achieve an appropriate margin of safety, a 5D or a 12D radiation treatment would have to be applied to acid and low acid foods, respectively.
  • Although the source of the energy and the mechanisms by which microorganisms and spores are killed are different, the same concept (decimal reduction value) is applied during the determination of the efficacy of thermal processing and preservation of food with ionizing energy.
42
Q

Is it true that irradiation can mask food spoilage?

A
  • Irradiation cannot be effectively used to mask or cover up food spoilage since the microorganisms can be easily killed but the spoilage odours, off-flavours and colour changes caused by the spoilage microorganisms can not be changed or eliminated by ionizing radiation.

Thus, claims that ionizing radiation can be used to mask signs of poor quality in food are untrue.

43
Q

The D10-values for E. coli 0157:H7 (in ground beef patties, at 5C) and Salmonella spp. (in turkey breast meat at 5C) are 0.27-0.38 and 0.71 kGy, respectively.
* What dose would be required for a 5D process for each of these pathogens under those conditions?
* What dose would be required for a 12D process for each of these pathogens under those conditions?

A
  • E. coli
    • 5D: 1.35-1.9 kGy
    • 12D: 3.24-4.56 kGy
  • Salmonella
    • 5D: 3.55 kGy
    • 12D: 8.52 kGy
44
Q

Describe the resistance of enzymes to ionizing radiation.

A
  • The majority of food enzymes are more resistant to ionizing energy than spores of C. botulinum.
  • The term DE (D-enzyme) is used to determine the radiation dose that produces a 90% reduction in enzyme activity.
  • The DE values are of the order of 5 Mrad.
  • Four DE values (5 x 4 = 20x106 rad or 200 kGy) would produce nearly total enzyme destruction; however, 200 KGy would also destroy many food constituents!
  • Ionizing energy could never be used for blanching vegetables.
  • One of the concerns expressed by groups opposed to food irradiation is that enzymes in food are destroyed by exposure to ionizing energy.
  • That is not the case especially if you consider the maximum dose permitted in Division 26 of the Food Regulations of Canada is 10 kGy.
  • If vegetables were to be preserved with ionizing energy, they would first have to be blanched with heat to inactivate enzymes followed by treatment with ionizing energy to inactivate the microorganisms of concern.

Remember that 100 rad is equivalent to 1 Gray of absorbed ionizing energy and 1000 Gray equals 1 KGy.

45
Q

Describe the costs of food irradiation.

A
  • After the issues of safety and wholesomeness have been satisfied, economic factors must be considered in evaluating the feasibility of an application of food irradiation.
  • Food irradiation may be economically viable if it results in substantial increases in storage life and therefore marketing time and decreases in post-harvest or catching losses.
  • This may be the case in terms of radicidation treatments of fresh fish or some fresh fruits.
  • In cases where the process does not offer advantages (such as nutrition retention, technological advantages, and economic advantages) it would not be economically viable.
46
Q

Describe potential applications of radiant energy.

A
  • Much of the food consumed by American and Russian astronauts has been preserved with ionizing energy.
  • Irradiation has proven effective in the elimination of Salmonella from cut-up, packaged chicken.
    • The chicken has received good consumer acceptance in test market trials in the United States.
  • Use of low dose radiation was approved in the United States, in December 1997, for general use in irradiation of ground beef to eliminate the bacteria (Escherichia coli O157:H7) that cause “hamburger disease”.
    • A similar application is under consideration by Health Canada.
47
Q

Discuss consumer acceptance of irradiated foods.

A
  • The ultimate factor which will determine the economic viability of preserving foods with ionizing energy is consumer acceptance.
  • In North America, the jury is still out as to whether radiation preserved foods would be accepted by consumers.
  • Results of recent consumer surveys, described under “Consumer acceptance” in the Scientific Status Summary by Smith and Pillai, suggest acceptability rates ranging from 45% to over 90%.
  • However, there are lingering “concerns expressed by anti-irradiation groups”, including the use of food irradiation to overcome poor sanitation practices and environmental concerns related to irradiation facilities.
48
Q

What is the difference between how the US and Canada view irradiated foods?

A
  • Food irradiation is considered a food additive in the US
  • It is considered a process in Canada
49
Q

In addition to the mandatory basic labelling, what else does food treated with ionizing radiation also include?

A
  1. a statement indicating that the food has been ‘treated by irradiation’ or ‘treated with radiation’ or ‘irradiated’
  2. the radura symbol is also used to indicate that a food has been irradiated
  3. if an irradiated food is used as an ingredient of another food, it must be declared as ‘irradiated’ in the ingredients list if it constitutes 10% of more of the final food
50
Q

What foods are currently approved for treatment by ionizing radiation in Canada?

A
  • Only the following irradiated foods: (1) potatoes, (2) onions, (3) wheat, flour, whole wheat flour, and (4) whole or ground spices and dehydrated seasoning preparations, are currently permitted for sale in Canada.
51
Q

Energy emitted from x-rays, gamma and beta rays is measured in […], whereas the amount of energy absorbed by the food is measured in […].

A

Energy emitted from x-rays, gamma and beta rays is measured in MeV, whereas the amount of energy absorbed by the food is measured in kGy.

52
Q

Foods will not become radioactive if the energy sources are operated at levels […].

A

<15 MeV

53
Q

Indirect effect

A

Free radicals formed in food products

54
Q

Direct effect

A

DNA damage to microbes/insects/parasites

55
Q

Lipid oxidation

A

Reaction with fats resulting in rancidity

56
Q

Radiolytic products

A

By-products formed in trace amounts

57
Q

Free radicals formed in food products

A

Indirect effect

58
Q

DNA damage to microbes/insects/parasites

A

Direct effect

59
Q

Reaction with fats resulting in rancidity

A

Lipid oxidation

60
Q

By-products formed in trace amounts

A

Radiolytic products

61
Q

Define: ionizing energy.

A

Energy in the form of short waves with high energy

62
Q

What is the minimum amount of ionizing energy required for a food to become radioactive?

A

15 MeV

63
Q

What is the maximum amount of ionizing energy used in food processing agreed upon internationally?

A

10 MeV

64
Q

Addition of free radical scavengers is a proposed method of minimizing undesirable changes during food irradiation.
True or False?

A

True.

65
Q

Irradiation in a frozen state is a proposed method of minimizing undesirable changes during food irradiation.
True or False?

A

True.

66
Q

Irradiation in a vacuum is a proposed method of minimizing undesirable changes during food irradiation.
True or False?

A

True.

67
Q

Irradiation in a heated state is a proposed method of minimizing undesirable changes during food irradiation.
True or False?

A

False.

68
Q

Yams are allowed to be irradiated in Canada.
True or False?

A

False.

69
Q

Ground chicken is allowed to be irradiated in Canada.
True or False?

A

False.

70
Q

Ground wheat (flour) is allowed to be irradiated in Canada.
True or False?

A

True.

71
Q

Beef (steak) is allowed to be irradiated in Canada.
True or False?

A

False.

72
Q

[…] is the process designed to kill or inhibit disease causing microorganisms in food.

A

Radicidation

73
Q

[…] is the process designed to kill the majority of spoilage causing microorganisms and parasites in food.

A

Radurization

74
Q

[…] is the symbol used to indicate that food has been irradiated.

A

Radura

75
Q

A food that has a D10 of 0.50 kGy, has a 5D of 2.5 kGy.
True or False?

A

True.

76
Q

Enzymes remain active after irradiation unlike the inactivation they undergo during blanching.
True or False?

A

True.

77
Q

Enzymes do not remain active after irradiation unlike the inactivation they undergo during blanching.
True or False?

A

False.
Enzymes remain active after irradiation unlike the inactivation they undergo during blanching.

78
Q

A requirement of wholesomeness of food is that potentially toxic compounds are not formed during irradiation.
True or False?

A

True.

79
Q

A requirement of wholesomeness of food is that only a few potentially toxic compounds are not formed during irradiation.
True or False?

A

False.
A requirement of wholesomeness of food is that potentially toxic compounds are not formed during irradiation.

80
Q

Some food products are permitted to be radioactive and sold in Canada.
True or False?

A

False.

81
Q

No food products are permitted to be radioactive and sold in Canada.
True or False?

A

True.

82
Q

Irradiation is a food processing method that can be widely applied.
True or False?

A

False.

83
Q

Irradiation is a food processing method that cannot be widely applied.
True or False?

A

False.

84
Q

Irradiation removes electrons but not neutrons from atoms.
True or False?

A

True.

85
Q

Irradiation removes electrons and also neutrons from atoms.
True or False?

A

False.
Irradiation removes electrons but not neutrons from atoms.

86
Q

Irradiation in Canada and the US is considered a food additive and is regulated as such.
True or False?

A

False.
Irradiation in Canada is considered a process, and in the US it is considered a food additive and is regulated as such.

87
Q

Irradiation in Canada is considered a process and the US it is considered a food additive and is regulated as such.
True or False?

A

True.

88
Q

Free radicals are only produced during food irradiation and NOT other forms of processing.
True or False?

A

False.

89
Q

Free radicals are produced during food irradiation and other forms of processing.
True or False?

A

True.

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