MODULE 1 (Unit 1 and Unit 2) Flashcards
microbiology (Gk)
small - life - study of
small organisms
microorganisms / microbes
noncellular entities
viruses, viroids, prions
study of structure, functions, and activities of bacteria
bacteriology
unicellular, varied size and shape
bacteria
cell walls of bacteria
carbohydrate & protein complex (peptidoglycan)
process of bacteria reproduction into two equal cells
binary fission
2 major groups of bacteria
eubacteria & cyanobacteria
disease-causing bacteria, “true bacteria”
eubacteria
“blue-green algae”, photosynthetic
cyanobacteria
chlorophyll of cyanobacteria is contained in a specialized lamellae called
thylakoid (not chloroplast)
ancient type of bacteria
archaebacteria
similar configuration w/ bacteria
archaea
hot, salty, low in organic material inhabitants lived 3.86 B yrs ago
extremophiles
produce methane as a waste product from respiration
methanogens
L. salt-loving
extreme halophiles
L. heat-loving
thermophiles
non-motile, non-photosynthetic
fungi
cell wall of fungi
chitin
ready-made nutrients absorbed by fungi - source of carbon and energy
organic molecules
Groups of fungi
microscopic - yeast & mold
macroscopic - mushroom
groups of microscopic fungi
unicellular - yeast
multicellular - mold
reproduce asexually by budding
yeast
fundamental unit structure of molds that may bear spores
hypha/hyphae
long, threadlike filaments
hypha/hyphae
fuzzy mass of hyphae
mycelium
study of organisms that live at the expense of another organism
parasitology
unicellular, microscopic parasites
protozoa
multicellular, macroscopic parasites
helminths & arthropods
diverse science of microbiology
protozoology
animal-like, unicellular, non-photosynthetic, lack cell wall, motile/nonmotile
protozoa
temporary cytoplasmic extensions
pseudopodia
long, whiplike appendage
flagellum
short, hairlike processes (eyelash)
cilia
entamoeba hystolytica
pseudopodia
Sarcoastigophora (pathogenic amoeba)
pseudopodia
Mastigophora
flagellum
Giardia lamblia
flagellum
Ciliophora
cilia
Balantidium coli
cilia
Phylum Apicomplexa
sporozoa
fourth major group of protozoa
sporozoa
immobile strict parasites
sporozoa
produce sexually and asexually in alternate generations
sporozoa
group of minute particles that parasitize living things
virus
viruses can only be observed thru electron microscope
ultramicroscopic
viruses can only pass thru bacteriologic filter (0.22 to 0.45 um)
filterable agents
cell structures that virus lack
cytoplasm, cell membrane, nucleus
four possible configurations
ssDNA
ssRNA
dsDNA
dsRNA
protective protein coat of nucleic acid
capsid
repeating units of proteins
capsomere
nucleic acid core + capsid
nucleocapsid
nucleocapsid can either be
enveloped or non-envelope (naked)
outer membrane layer
glycoproteins - virus
lipids - host cell membrane
envelope
viruses require a host cell to survive and replicate
obligate intracellular
used by viruses to synthesize proteins and produce energy
host’s machinery
susceptible to viral infection
every organism
viruses that infect bacteria
bacteriophages/phages
seaweed
Gr. “phykes”
Phycology
Algology
study of various types of algae
Phycology
plant-like, photosynthetic
algae
unicellular algae
microscopic diatoms and dinoflagellates
multicellular algae
macroscopic seaweed (no roots, leaves, stem)
variant of green alga Chlorella that causes protothecosis
Prototheca
manifestation of protothecosis
skin ulcers
associated with dinoflagellates, subdivision of Pyrophyta - caused by consumption of contaminated shellfish
paralytic shellfish poisoning
produces neurotoxin that cause paralysis
dinoflagellates
danger increases during seasons favored for
algal multiplication/algal blooms
a characteristic red color to the water indicative of great abundance of neurotoxin of shellfish in the region
redtide
ancient Egypt and China; Classical period
Antiquity/Ancient Civilization
practices and laws in order to prevent occurrence and spread of diseases in Ancient Civilization (4)
isolation of the sick
burying of waste materials
prohibition of eating animals who died of natural causes
practice of personal hygiene by simply washing and keeping clean
In European history, it lasted from the 5th to the 15th century; general stagnation of culture and learning for almost 1000 years; diseases were caused by curses from gods; epidemics of smallpox, syphilis, rabies and other diseases
Middle Ages/Medieval period
scientific methods were developed which led many to believe that the use of science would lead to all knowledge; throwing back the shroud of myth; began approximately in the 16th century
Modern Period/Western civilization
New information about the world was discovered via
empirical observation
Italian physician; observed occurrence of epidemics of syphilis and typhus (1500s);
Girolamo Fracastoro (Fracastorius)
epidemic diseases are caused by tiny particles that transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances (book, year, author)
De Contagione (1546, Girolamo Fracastoro)
the name syphilis was derived from (author’s year + name)
Fracastoro’s 1530 epic poem in 3 books about a shepherd named Syphilus
unlikely scientist; tradesman from Holland; apprenticed as a draper (fabric merchant), learned to grind lenses, made simple microscopes and began observing with them; Father of Microbiology
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
year when Leeuwenhoek first observed live bacteria using a simple microscope
1667
Leeuwenhoek discovered: (4)
- bacteria
- protozoans
- microscopic algae
- nematode
hundreds of tiny, living animals
animalcules
Leeuwenhoek’s device also observed:
sperm cells, blood cells. and much more
Period when Leeuwenhoek convinced scientists of the existence of miroorganisms
17th century
Leeuwenhoek did not speculate on the
- origin of those microorganism
- association with the cause of disease
belief or hypothetical process stating that some forms of life could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter (i.e. life could develop from non-life)
spontaneous generation/abiogenesis
an Italian physician and poet who made the first serious attack on the idea of spontaneous generation + year
Francesco Redi (1668)
variety of flask in Redi’s experiment
- open to air
- sealed
- covered w/ gauze
maggots appeared only in the ________ flasks in which the flies could reach the meat and lay their eggs
open flasks
The Theory of Spontaneous Generation was debated upon for about two centuries
1650 to 1850
The theory of spontaneous generation was finally laid to rest in 1859 by a powerful opponent in the person of the young French chemist
Louis Pasteur
When and who sponsored a contest for the best experiment either proving or disproving spontaneous generation?
French Academy of Sciences, 1864
Louis Pasteur during French Academy of Sciences (2)
- refuted the theory of spontaneous generation
- convincingly demonstrated that microorganisms are everywhere - even in the air
Pasteur discovered the method of attenuation of microorganisms that is the basis of vaccination (chicken cholera, anthrax, rabies).
Development of Vaccines (1880 - 1890)
Application of mild heating to kill spoilage- and disease-causing microorganisms.
Pasteurization Technique
In the classic pasteurization treatment of milk, the milk was exposed to a temperature of about 63oC for 30 minutes, called the
holding method
he concept that specific infectious disease is caused by a specific microorganism
Germ Theory of Disease
Since then, this technique has long been employed to alcoholic beverages, milk and other dairy products.
He proposed the biological process of FERMENTATION.
an antigenic material used to stimulate an individual’s immune system to develop immunity against a pathogen; administration of a vaccine
Development of Vaccines (1880 - 1890)
French emperor, Napoleon III asked Pasteur to investigate the diseases afflicting wine which were causing considerable economic losses to the wine industry.
biological process of FERMENTATION.
In 1864, Pasteur demonstrated that wine diseases are caused by some bacteria (Acetobacter) which may change alcohol into acetic acid.
He proposed the biological process of FERMENTATION.
The defeat of spontaneous generation: Pasteur’s swan-necked flask experiment [Arrange]
- The liquid cooled slowly. Air could enter the flask, but airborne microorganisms could not - they would settle by gravity in the neck. As Pasteur had expected, no microorganisms grew.
- Non-sterile liquid is poured out into a flask.
- When Pasteur tilted the flask so that the broth reached the lowest point in
the neck, where any airborne particles would have settled, the broth rapidly became cloudy with life. - The neck of the flask was heated in a flame until it became pliable, and bent it into the shape of an S.
- Liquid was sterilized by heating
- D.
- A
- B.
- E.
- C.
a German scientist and is Pasteur’s contemporary
Robert Koch
Koch studied a disease of cattle that occasionally occurs in humans.
Anthrax
Koch was named as the Father of Bacteriologic Techniques.
pure cultures of microorganisms
In Koch’s experiments, he used diseased and healthy mice as experimental animals. He injected a small amount of blood from a diseased mouse into a healthy mouse and the disease anthrax was quickly transferred. He took blood from the second mouse injected it into another, and again obtained the characteristic disease symptoms.
Anthrax
In 1881, following the formulation of media chiefly made up of meat extract and protein digests.
pure cultures of microorganisms
In 1882, Koch discovered the bacterium that causes tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Koch was able to accomplish this feat alongside his colleagues
pure cultures of microorganisms
use of agar to solidify culture media
Fanny Hesse
fashioned the Petri dish
Richard Petri
introduced the use of aniline dyes for staining microorganisms
Paul Ehrlich
In 1884, on the basis of Koch’s other experiments, he formulated the criteria for proving the germ theory of disease.
Koch’s postulate
germ theory of disease was conceptualized and given experimental support by
Robert Koch
Discoveries in what provided indirect evidence for the importance of microorganisms in causing human diseases.
Sanitation
a Hungarian physician employed in Vienna General Hospital in Austria | During his practice in the rain institution, he observed the high incidence of maternal mortality (death following delivery) due to puerperal fever.
Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis
In 1847 Semmelweis proposed that the incidence maternal mortality could be drastically cut by use of
hand washing standards
Semmelweis suggested hand washing in
chlorinated lime solution
the incidence of maternal mortality declined from up to what % earning him the title “Savior of Mothers”
30% to 1 to <5%
an English surgeon, used the antiseptic properties of phenol in his pioneering technique of antiseptic surgery | decided that the wounds themselves had to be thoroughly cleaned
Joseph Lister
Lister covered the wounds with a piece of rag or lint covered in
phenol/carbolic acid
The skin irritation caused by continual exposure to phenol eventually led to the substitution of
aseptic (germ-free) techniques in surgery
introduced the first successful vaccination | wondered if intentionally giving cowpox to people would protect them against smallpox | Father of Vaccination
Edward Jenner
From the early days of his career Edward Jenner had been intrigued by country-lore which said that people who caught [1] from their cows could not catch [2].
- cowpox (vaccinia virus)
- smallpox (variola virus)
In what year Jenner published a pamphlet on his work, where prominent physicians confirmed his findings within a few years, and his method of vaccination spread through Europe and abroad.
1798
In May 1796, a dairy maid came to Jenner’s office with lesions of cowpox evident on her hand
Sarah Nelmes
Jenner took material from the lesions and scratched (variolated) it into the skin of a boy named
James Phipps
The boy soon developed a slight fever, but recovered. Six weeks after the variolation he inoculated the young boy with material from a
smallpox lesion
Within days, the boy developed a reaction at the site but failed to show any sign of smallpox. He then repeated his experiments with other children, including his own son. His therapeutic technique of vaccination (vacca = “cow”) worked in all cases and eliminated the risks associated with
variolation
introduced the concept of phagocytosis
Elie Metchnikoff
blood cells were also important in
cellular immunity
what are the blood leukocytes that could engulf disease-causing bacteria? (1882)
phagocytes
“eating” in greek
phagein
defined as the use of chemical agent/s drugs in the treatment of disease (cancer)
Chemotherapy
coined the term chemotherapy and headed the world’s first institute concerned with the development of drugs to treat disease
Paul Ehrlich
His discovery that certain dyes stained microorganisms but not animal cells suggested that dyes or other chemicals might selectively kill microbial cells. Name the dye.
aniline dyes
a chemical that would destroy specific bacteria without damaging surrounding tissues
magic bullet
a chemotherapeutic agent, an arsenic derivative used in the treatment of syphilis
salvarsan/arsphenamine
a colony of Penicillium mold contaminating culture of Staphylococcus bacteria had prevented growth of
bacteria adjacent to itself
who was the the first to recognize Penicillium mold’s potential for countering infections
Alexander Flemming
became available as a safe and versatile chemotherapeutic agent for use in humans
Penicillin
involves the study of pathogens, the nature and development of diseases that they cause and the body’s defenses against such diseases | concerned with transmission of pathogens, disease prevention measures, aseptic techniques, treatment of infectious diseases, and immunology
Medical Microbiology
studies the factors that determine the occurrence and distribution of diseases
Epidemiology
is concerned with how the immune system protects the body from pathogens and the response of infectious agents
Immunology
concerned with the laboratory diagnosis of infectious diseases of humans
clinical or diagnostic microbiology
isolate and identify pathogenic microbes and suggest possible treatment to clinicians
Clinical microbiology laboratories
centers on the spread and control of infectious diseases among animals
Veterinary Microbiology
infectious diseases of humans acquired from animals, is another area of major importance in veterinary microbiology
Zoonoses or zoonotic diseases
studies the harmful and beneficial roles of microbes in plants and crops; in the production of foods from plants and crops; in soil formation and fertility; in carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles; and in the digestive processes of cows and other ruminants
Agricultural Microbiology
A significant breakthrough in the field of Agricultural Microbiology
role of nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria in soil fertility
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g. Rhizobia species) in the root nodules of legumes convert nitrogen gas from air into ammonia
nitrogen-fixation
ammonia is then converted into nitrites and nitrates by nitrifying bacteria in soil used by plants to build plant proteins, thereby reducing the need for fertilizers.
nitrification
primarily concerned with the role of microorganisms in food production such as in the manufacture of dairy products; breads; alcoholic beverages; plant products; and fish products
Food microbiology
Food microbiology also explores on the use of microorganisms as
food source
a food substitute consisting of microbial cells (e.g., Spirulina)
single cell protein (SCP)
Food microbiologists employ various methods such as the use of heat, cold, radiation, and chemical preservatives to prevent food spoilage and food poisoning
food preservation
Food poisoning associated with microorganisms may be of 2 mechanisms:
Food-borne infection & Food intoxication
results when the contaminating organism infects the person who ingests the contaminated food
Food-borne infection
occurs when toxin formed in food by microbial growth and is ingested with the food. Toxins produced in the food can be associated with live microbial cells or can be released from the lysed bacterial cells.
Food intoxication
Scientists specializing in this field oversees the grading, pasteurization and processing of milk to prevent contamination, spoilage and transmission of diseases from environmental sources.
Dairy Microbiology
involves the study and detection of risks associated with the production, manufacture or consumption of foods and water to ensure that microbial pathogens are not transferred to man
Sanitary Microbiology
Sanitary microbiologists guarantee public safety by [1] to ensure that no pathogens are carried to consumer by drinking water and by [2] and eating establishments to ensure that proper food handling procedures are being enforced.
- purification and processing of water supplies
- inspection of food processing installations
Additionally, sanitary microbiologists monitor processing and disposal of
garbage and sewage wastes
By performing well-developed and standardized methods, sanitary microbiologists assess [1] to ensure its suitability for consumption.
water quality
A widely used indicator for microbial water contamination is the
–
useful because many of them inhabit the intestinal tract of humans and other animals; their presence in water indicates likely fecal contamination
coliform group of bacteria
Water samples are collected and analyzed in [1] to rule out or detect and confirm the presence of coliform group of bacteria.
water testing laboratories
encompasses the monitoring and maintenance of essential microorganisms for commercial enterprises
Industrial Microbiology
Business and industries depend on microorganisms to harvest desired products on a
large scale production
Products produced by or derived from microorganisms that have been made available for public consumption include
- antibiotics
- vaccines
- enzymes
- amino acids
- vitamins
- beer
- wine
- other alcoholic beverages
The activities of industrial microbiologists do not only involve identification of microbes of use to industry. Rather, they also engineer microbes with desirable traits and devise systems for culturing them and isolating the products they make | includes any technique that uses living orgs or substances produced by these orgs to make or modify a product, to improve plant or animals or to develop microorganisms for specific purpose.
biotechnology
the study of the interrelationships among microorganisms and other microorganisms and the environment | relates primarily to the overall microbial processes that occur in soil, water, or food, as examples
Microbial Ecology or Environmental Microbiology
They study the global and local contributions of microorganisms to the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles.
Microbial ecologists
Microbial ecologists examine [1] that may exist in soils, waters, or in association with other organisms, including humans.
natural microbial communities
This field of microbiology has become important because of an increased concern about the environment, particularly about pollution
environmental microbiology
important because of the impact these organisms have on the environment
analysis of the effects of pollution on microorganisms
centers on the role of microorganisms in the Biogeochemical Cycle
Soil Microbiology
refers to the recycling of chemical elements by microorganisms for use by other microorganisms which is perhaps the most important role of soil microbes.
biogeochemical cycle
decompose organic matter and transform C-, N-, S- & P-containing compounds into usable forms
Soil microbes
All organisms need this to synthesize protein, nucleic acids, and other nitrogen- containing compounds
nitrogen
During nitrogen cycle, nitrogen in the atmosphere goes through [1], [2], and [3].
- fixation
- nitrification
- denitrification
Nitrates assimilated into plants and animals after nitrificatlon go through [1], [2], and then [3] again.
- decomposition
- ammonification
- nitrification
deals with the study of microorganisms and their activities in natural waters which include lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, estuaries and sea
Aquatic Microbiology
important concern as one form of water pollution
microbial pollution of water
Environmental microbiologists that specialize in aquatic microbiology are concerned about
water and sewage treatment
it is partially accomplished by bacteria in the holding tanks of sewage disposal plants, where feces, garbage, and other organic materials are collected and reduced to harmless waste
purification of waste water
The most dangerous form of water pollution occurs when
feces enter the water supply
Many diseases are perpetuated by this mode of transmission, in which a pathogen is shed in human or animal feces, contaminates water, and is ingested.
fecal-oral route of transmission
Examples of such diseases are [1] and [2] caused by bacteria that are shed only in human feces.
- typhoid fever
- cholera
involves the use of microbes for treatment o f wastes and to to detoxify or degrade pollutants such as those coming from industrial plants or oil spills in waters
Bioremediation
Scientists use microorganisms as [1] to clean up industrial and toxic wastes in the environment.
natural pollution fighter
Oil spills from wrecked tankers represent some of the most dramatic examples of
chemical pollution
The economic losses from [1] can be enormous.
contaminated fisheries and beaches
Bioremediation may be employed by use of microbes that can gradually but completely degrade [1] (e.g., petroleum) to [2].
organic pollutants to carbon dioxide
place where the oil spill occurred in Alaska in 1989
Exxon Valdez
this species degrade oil for their carbon and energy requirement
Pseudomonas species
deficient in essential elements, such as nitrogen and phosphorus
petroleum hydrocarbons
Bioremediation of oil spills is greatly enhanced if the microbes used are provided with “fertilizer” (i.e. plant fertilizers) containing nitrogen and phosphorus, a process also referred to as | it involves addition of nutrients to speed up bioremediation
bioaugmentation
science of microbiology revolves around two interconnected themes:
a. understanding the…
b. applying our understanding of the microbial world for the benefit of
- microbial world
- humankind and our planet
Perhaps one of the most advanced contribution of microbes to man is by providing insight on how scientists, particularly geneticists, can provide
cure to some diseases which were before deemed as “untreatable”.
provides a clear understanding of the function of microorganisms, the structure of DNA, and the science of genetics, the study of heredity
Microbial Physiology and Genetics
Scientists specializing in the field of Microbial Physiology and Genetics focuses on the nature of [1] and how it regulates the development and function of cells and organisms.
genetic information
refers to gene manipulation to produce a desired gene product
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering involves the transfer and insertion of genes from one cell to another, so that when the cell receives a new gene, it can produce the gene product that is coded by that gene. This is called
Recombinant DNA Technology
these cells chosen are those that are easily cultured in order to facilitate the large production of important gene products
recipient cells
during genetic engineering, microorganisms are commonly used as
biological factories
Examples of such advances include the use of genetically engineered bacteria in the production of insulin and interferons.
E. coli
involves the study of microbial DNA, chromosomes, plasmids, and genes which has been very helpful in understanding the structure and function of genes (i.e., DNA)
Microbial genetics
The field of microbial genetics has made a great impact on how some diseases may be treated by the process known today as
gene therapy
Gene therapy is another interesting and exciting outcome of
recombinant DNA technology
Gene therapy involves treating disease by [1] or [2].
- replacing abnormal genes
- providing missing genes
Disease treatment is facilitated by insertion of [1] into a cell to correct problems associated with abnormally functioning genes.
normally functioning genes
This technique uses [1] to carry the missing or new gene and insert it into the chromosome.
harmless virus
