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Clinical Bacteriology [Lecture] > MODULE 1 (Unit 1 and Unit 2) > Flashcards

MODULE 1 (Unit 1 and Unit 2) Flashcards

1
Q

microbiology (Gk)

A

small - life - study of

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2
Q

small organisms

A

microorganisms / microbes

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3
Q

noncellular entities

A

viruses, viroids, prions

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4
Q

study of structure, functions, and activities of bacteria

A

bacteriology

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5
Q

unicellular, varied size and shape

A

bacteria

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6
Q

cell walls of bacteria

A

carbohydrate & protein complex (peptidoglycan)

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7
Q

process of bacteria reproduction into two equal cells

A

binary fission

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8
Q

2 major groups of bacteria

A

eubacteria & cyanobacteria

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9
Q

disease-causing bacteria, “true bacteria”

A

eubacteria

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10
Q

“blue-green algae”, photosynthetic

A

cyanobacteria

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11
Q

chlorophyll of cyanobacteria is contained in a specialized lamellae called

A

thylakoid (not chloroplast)

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12
Q

ancient type of bacteria

A

archaebacteria

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13
Q

similar configuration w/ bacteria

A

archaea

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14
Q

hot, salty, low in organic material inhabitants lived 3.86 B yrs ago

A

extremophiles

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15
Q

produce methane as a waste product from respiration

A

methanogens

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16
Q

L. salt-loving

A

extreme halophiles

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17
Q

L. heat-loving

A

thermophiles

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18
Q

non-motile, non-photosynthetic

A

fungi

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19
Q

cell wall of fungi

A

chitin

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20
Q

ready-made nutrients absorbed by fungi - source of carbon and energy

A

organic molecules

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21
Q

Groups of fungi

A

microscopic - yeast & mold

macroscopic - mushroom

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22
Q

groups of microscopic fungi

A

unicellular - yeast

multicellular - mold

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23
Q

reproduce asexually by budding

A

yeast

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24
Q

fundamental unit structure of molds that may bear spores

A

hypha/hyphae

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25
Q

long, threadlike filaments

A

hypha/hyphae

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26
Q

fuzzy mass of hyphae

A

mycelium

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27
Q

study of organisms that live at the expense of another organism

A

parasitology

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28
Q

unicellular, microscopic parasites

A

protozoa

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29
Q

multicellular, macroscopic parasites

A

helminths & arthropods

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30
Q

diverse science of microbiology

A

protozoology

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31
Q

animal-like, unicellular, non-photosynthetic, lack cell wall, motile/nonmotile

A

protozoa

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32
Q

temporary cytoplasmic extensions

A

pseudopodia

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33
Q

long, whiplike appendage

A

flagellum

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34
Q

short, hairlike processes (eyelash)

A

cilia

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35
Q

entamoeba hystolytica

A

pseudopodia

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36
Q

Sarcoastigophora (pathogenic amoeba)

A

pseudopodia

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37
Q

Mastigophora

A

flagellum

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38
Q

Giardia lamblia

A

flagellum

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39
Q

Ciliophora

A

cilia

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40
Q

Balantidium coli

A

cilia

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41
Q

Phylum Apicomplexa

A

sporozoa

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42
Q

fourth major group of protozoa

A

sporozoa

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43
Q

immobile strict parasites

A

sporozoa

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44
Q

produce sexually and asexually in alternate generations

A

sporozoa

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45
Q

group of minute particles that parasitize living things

A

virus

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46
Q

viruses can only be observed thru electron microscope

A

ultramicroscopic

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47
Q

viruses can only pass thru bacteriologic filter (0.22 to 0.45 um)

A

filterable agents

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48
Q

cell structures that virus lack

A

cytoplasm, cell membrane, nucleus

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49
Q

four possible configurations

A

ssDNA
ssRNA
dsDNA
dsRNA

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50
Q

protective protein coat of nucleic acid

A

capsid

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51
Q

repeating units of proteins

A

capsomere

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52
Q

nucleic acid core + capsid

A

nucleocapsid

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53
Q

nucleocapsid can either be

A

enveloped or non-envelope (naked)

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54
Q

outer membrane layer

glycoproteins - virus
lipids - host cell membrane

A

envelope

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55
Q

viruses require a host cell to survive and replicate

A

obligate intracellular

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56
Q

used by viruses to synthesize proteins and produce energy

A

host’s machinery

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57
Q

susceptible to viral infection

A

every organism

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58
Q

viruses that infect bacteria

A

bacteriophages/phages

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59
Q

seaweed

A

Gr. “phykes”

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60
Q

Phycology

A

Algology

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61
Q

study of various types of algae

A

Phycology

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62
Q

plant-like, photosynthetic

A

algae

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63
Q

unicellular algae

A

microscopic diatoms and dinoflagellates

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64
Q

multicellular algae

A

macroscopic seaweed (no roots, leaves, stem)

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65
Q

variant of green alga Chlorella that causes protothecosis

A

Prototheca

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66
Q

manifestation of protothecosis

A

skin ulcers

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67
Q

associated with dinoflagellates, subdivision of Pyrophyta - caused by consumption of contaminated shellfish

A

paralytic shellfish poisoning

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68
Q

produces neurotoxin that cause paralysis

A

dinoflagellates

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69
Q

danger increases during seasons favored for

A

algal multiplication/algal blooms

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70
Q

a characteristic red color to the water indicative of great abundance of neurotoxin of shellfish in the region

A

redtide

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71
Q

ancient Egypt and China; Classical period

A

Antiquity/Ancient Civilization

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72
Q

practices and laws in order to prevent occurrence and spread of diseases in Ancient Civilization (4)

A

isolation of the sick
burying of waste materials
prohibition of eating animals who died of natural causes
practice of personal hygiene by simply washing and keeping clean

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73
Q

In European history, it lasted from the 5th to the 15th century; general stagnation of culture and learning for almost 1000 years; diseases were caused by curses from gods; epidemics of smallpox, syphilis, rabies and other diseases

A

Middle Ages/Medieval period

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74
Q

scientific methods were developed which led many to believe that the use of science would lead to all knowledge; throwing back the shroud of myth; began approximately in the 16th century

A

Modern Period/Western civilization

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75
Q

New information about the world was discovered via

A

empirical observation

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76
Q

Italian physician; observed occurrence of epidemics of syphilis and typhus (1500s);

A

Girolamo Fracastoro (Fracastorius)

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77
Q

epidemic diseases are caused by tiny particles that transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances (book, year, author)

A

De Contagione (1546, Girolamo Fracastoro)

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78
Q

the name syphilis was derived from (author’s year + name)

A

Fracastoro’s 1530 epic poem in 3 books about a shepherd named Syphilus

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79
Q

unlikely scientist; tradesman from Holland; apprenticed as a draper (fabric merchant), learned to grind lenses, made simple microscopes and began observing with them; Father of Microbiology

A

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

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80
Q

year when Leeuwenhoek first observed live bacteria using a simple microscope

A

1667

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81
Q

Leeuwenhoek discovered: (4)

A
  • bacteria
  • protozoans
  • microscopic algae
  • nematode
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82
Q

hundreds of tiny, living animals

A

animalcules

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83
Q

Leeuwenhoek’s device also observed:

A

sperm cells, blood cells. and much more

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84
Q

Period when Leeuwenhoek convinced scientists of the existence of miroorganisms

A

17th century

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85
Q

Leeuwenhoek did not speculate on the

A
  • origin of those microorganism

- association with the cause of disease

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86
Q

belief or hypothetical process stating that some forms of life could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter (i.e. life could develop from non-life)

A

spontaneous generation/abiogenesis

87
Q

an Italian physician and poet who made the first serious attack on the idea of spontaneous generation + year

A

Francesco Redi (1668)

88
Q

variety of flask in Redi’s experiment

A
  • open to air
  • sealed
  • covered w/ gauze
89
Q

maggots appeared only in the ________ flasks in which the flies could reach the meat and lay their eggs

A

open flasks

90
Q

The Theory of Spontaneous Generation was debated upon for about two centuries

A

1650 to 1850

91
Q

The theory of spontaneous generation was finally laid to rest in 1859 by a powerful opponent in the person of the young French chemist

A

Louis Pasteur

92
Q

When and who sponsored a contest for the best experiment either proving or disproving spontaneous generation?

A

French Academy of Sciences, 1864

93
Q

Louis Pasteur during French Academy of Sciences (2)

A
  • refuted the theory of spontaneous generation

- convincingly demonstrated that microorganisms are everywhere - even in the air

94
Q

Pasteur discovered the method of attenuation of microorganisms that is the basis of vaccination (chicken cholera, anthrax, rabies).

A

Development of Vaccines (1880 - 1890)

95
Q

Application of mild heating to kill spoilage- and disease-causing microorganisms.

A

Pasteurization Technique

96
Q

In the classic pasteurization treatment of milk, the milk was exposed to a temperature of about 63oC for 30 minutes, called the

A

holding method

97
Q

he concept that specific infectious disease is caused by a specific microorganism

A

Germ Theory of Disease

98
Q

Since then, this technique has long been employed to alcoholic beverages, milk and other dairy products.

A

He proposed the biological process of FERMENTATION.

99
Q

an antigenic material used to stimulate an individual’s immune system to develop immunity against a pathogen; administration of a vaccine

A

Development of Vaccines (1880 - 1890)

100
Q

French emperor, Napoleon III asked Pasteur to investigate the diseases afflicting wine which were causing considerable economic losses to the wine industry.

A

biological process of FERMENTATION.

101
Q

In 1864, Pasteur demonstrated that wine diseases are caused by some bacteria (Acetobacter) which may change alcohol into acetic acid.

A

He proposed the biological process of FERMENTATION.

102
Q

The defeat of spontaneous generation: Pasteur’s swan-necked flask experiment [Arrange]

  1. The liquid cooled slowly. Air could enter the flask, but airborne microorganisms could not - they would settle by gravity in the neck. As Pasteur had expected, no microorganisms grew.
  2. Non-sterile liquid is poured out into a flask.
  3. When Pasteur tilted the flask so that the broth reached the lowest point in
    the neck, where any airborne particles would have settled, the broth rapidly became cloudy with life.
  4. The neck of the flask was heated in a flame until it became pliable, and bent it into the shape of an S.
  5. Liquid was sterilized by heating
A
  1. D.
  2. A
  3. B.
  4. E.
  5. C.
103
Q

a German scientist and is Pasteur’s contemporary

A

Robert Koch

104
Q

Koch studied a disease of cattle that occasionally occurs in humans.

A

Anthrax

105
Q

Koch was named as the Father of Bacteriologic Techniques.

A

pure cultures of microorganisms

106
Q

In Koch’s experiments, he used diseased and healthy mice as experimental animals. He injected a small amount of blood from a diseased mouse into a healthy mouse and the disease anthrax was quickly transferred. He took blood from the second mouse injected it into another, and again obtained the characteristic disease symptoms.

A

Anthrax

107
Q

In 1881, following the formulation of media chiefly made up of meat extract and protein digests.

A

pure cultures of microorganisms

108
Q

In 1882, Koch discovered the bacterium that causes tuberculosis

A

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

109
Q

Koch was able to accomplish this feat alongside his colleagues

A

pure cultures of microorganisms

110
Q

use of agar to solidify culture media

A

Fanny Hesse

111
Q

fashioned the Petri dish

A

Richard Petri

112
Q

introduced the use of aniline dyes for staining microorganisms

A

Paul Ehrlich

113
Q

In 1884, on the basis of Koch’s other experiments, he formulated the criteria for proving the germ theory of disease.

A

Koch’s postulate

114
Q

germ theory of disease was conceptualized and given experimental support by

A

Robert Koch

115
Q

Discoveries in what provided indirect evidence for the importance of microorganisms in causing human diseases.

A

Sanitation

116
Q

a Hungarian physician employed in Vienna General Hospital in Austria | During his practice in the rain institution, he observed the high incidence of maternal mortality (death following delivery) due to puerperal fever.

A

Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis

117
Q

In 1847 Semmelweis proposed that the incidence maternal mortality could be drastically cut by use of

A

hand washing standards

118
Q

Semmelweis suggested hand washing in

A

chlorinated lime solution

119
Q

the incidence of maternal mortality declined from up to what % earning him the title “Savior of Mothers”

A

30% to 1 to <5%

120
Q

an English surgeon, used the antiseptic properties of phenol in his pioneering technique of antiseptic surgery | decided that the wounds themselves had to be thoroughly cleaned

A

Joseph Lister

121
Q

Lister covered the wounds with a piece of rag or lint covered in

A

phenol/carbolic acid

122
Q

The skin irritation caused by continual exposure to phenol eventually led to the substitution of

A

aseptic (germ-free) techniques in surgery

123
Q

introduced the first successful vaccination | wondered if intentionally giving cowpox to people would protect them against smallpox | Father of Vaccination

A

Edward Jenner

124
Q

From the early days of his career Edward Jenner had been intrigued by country-lore which said that people who caught [1] from their cows could not catch [2].

A
  • cowpox (vaccinia virus)

- smallpox (variola virus)

125
Q

In what year Jenner published a pamphlet on his work, where prominent physicians confirmed his findings within a few years, and his method of vaccination spread through Europe and abroad.

A

1798

126
Q

In May 1796, a dairy maid came to Jenner’s office with lesions of cowpox evident on her hand

A

Sarah Nelmes

127
Q

Jenner took material from the lesions and scratched (variolated) it into the skin of a boy named

A

James Phipps

128
Q

The boy soon developed a slight fever, but recovered. Six weeks after the variolation he inoculated the young boy with material from a

A

smallpox lesion

129
Q

Within days, the boy developed a reaction at the site but failed to show any sign of smallpox. He then repeated his experiments with other children, including his own son. His therapeutic technique of vaccination (vacca = “cow”) worked in all cases and eliminated the risks associated with

A

variolation

130
Q

introduced the concept of phagocytosis

A

Elie Metchnikoff

131
Q

blood cells were also important in

A

cellular immunity

132
Q

what are the blood leukocytes that could engulf disease-causing bacteria? (1882)

A

phagocytes

133
Q

“eating” in greek

A

phagein

134
Q

defined as the use of chemical agent/s drugs in the treatment of disease (cancer)

A

Chemotherapy

135
Q

coined the term chemotherapy and headed the world’s first institute concerned with the development of drugs to treat disease

A

Paul Ehrlich

136
Q

His discovery that certain dyes stained microorganisms but not animal cells suggested that dyes or other chemicals might selectively kill microbial cells. Name the dye.

A

aniline dyes

137
Q

a chemical that would destroy specific bacteria without damaging surrounding tissues

A

magic bullet

138
Q

a chemotherapeutic agent, an arsenic derivative used in the treatment of syphilis

A

salvarsan/arsphenamine

139
Q

a colony of Penicillium mold contaminating culture of Staphylococcus bacteria had prevented growth of

A

bacteria adjacent to itself

140
Q

who was the the first to recognize Penicillium mold’s potential for countering infections

A

Alexander Flemming

141
Q

became available as a safe and versatile chemotherapeutic agent for use in humans

A

Penicillin

142
Q

involves the study of pathogens, the nature and development of diseases that they cause and the body’s defenses against such diseases | concerned with transmission of pathogens, disease prevention measures, aseptic techniques, treatment of infectious diseases, and immunology

A

Medical Microbiology

143
Q

studies the factors that determine the occurrence and distribution of diseases

A

Epidemiology

144
Q

is concerned with how the immune system protects the body from pathogens and the response of infectious agents

A

Immunology

145
Q

concerned with the laboratory diagnosis of infectious diseases of humans

A

clinical or diagnostic microbiology

146
Q

isolate and identify pathogenic microbes and suggest possible treatment to clinicians

A

Clinical microbiology laboratories

147
Q

centers on the spread and control of infectious diseases among animals

A

Veterinary Microbiology

148
Q

infectious diseases of humans acquired from animals, is another area of major importance in veterinary microbiology

A

Zoonoses or zoonotic diseases

149
Q

studies the harmful and beneficial roles of microbes in plants and crops; in the production of foods from plants and crops; in soil formation and fertility; in carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles; and in the digestive processes of cows and other ruminants

A

Agricultural Microbiology

150
Q

A significant breakthrough in the field of Agricultural Microbiology

A

role of nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria in soil fertility

151
Q

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g. Rhizobia species) in the root nodules of legumes convert nitrogen gas from air into ammonia

A

nitrogen-fixation

152
Q

ammonia is then converted into nitrites and nitrates by nitrifying bacteria in soil used by plants to build plant proteins, thereby reducing the need for fertilizers.

A

nitrification

153
Q

primarily concerned with the role of microorganisms in food production such as in the manufacture of dairy products; breads; alcoholic beverages; plant products; and fish products

A

Food microbiology

154
Q

Food microbiology also explores on the use of microorganisms as

A

food source

155
Q

a food substitute consisting of microbial cells (e.g., Spirulina)

A

single cell protein (SCP)

156
Q

Food microbiologists employ various methods such as the use of heat, cold, radiation, and chemical preservatives to prevent food spoilage and food poisoning

A

food preservation

157
Q

Food poisoning associated with microorganisms may be of 2 mechanisms:

A

Food-borne infection & Food intoxication

158
Q

results when the contaminating organism infects the person who ingests the contaminated food

A

Food-borne infection

159
Q

occurs when toxin formed in food by microbial growth and is ingested with the food. Toxins produced in the food can be associated with live microbial cells or can be released from the lysed bacterial cells.

A

Food intoxication

160
Q

Scientists specializing in this field oversees the grading, pasteurization and processing of milk to prevent contamination, spoilage and transmission of diseases from environmental sources.

A

Dairy Microbiology

161
Q

involves the study and detection of risks associated with the production, manufacture or consumption of foods and water to ensure that microbial pathogens are not transferred to man

A

Sanitary Microbiology

162
Q

Sanitary microbiologists guarantee public safety by [1] to ensure that no pathogens are carried to consumer by drinking water and by [2] and eating establishments to ensure that proper food handling procedures are being enforced.

A
  • purification and processing of water supplies

- inspection of food processing installations

163
Q

Additionally, sanitary microbiologists monitor processing and disposal of

A

garbage and sewage wastes

164
Q

By performing well-developed and standardized methods, sanitary microbiologists assess [1] to ensure its suitability for consumption.

A

water quality

165
Q

A widely used indicator for microbial water contamination is the

A

–

166
Q

useful because many of them inhabit the intestinal tract of humans and other animals; their presence in water indicates likely fecal contamination

A

coliform group of bacteria

167
Q

Water samples are collected and analyzed in [1] to rule out or detect and confirm the presence of coliform group of bacteria.

A

water testing laboratories

168
Q

encompasses the monitoring and maintenance of essential microorganisms for commercial enterprises

A

Industrial Microbiology

169
Q

Business and industries depend on microorganisms to harvest desired products on a

A

large scale production

170
Q

Products produced by or derived from microorganisms that have been made available for public consumption include

A
  • antibiotics
  • vaccines
  • enzymes
  • amino acids
  • vitamins
  • beer
  • wine
  • other alcoholic beverages
171
Q

The activities of industrial microbiologists do not only involve identification of microbes of use to industry. Rather, they also engineer microbes with desirable traits and devise systems for culturing them and isolating the products they make | includes any technique that uses living orgs or substances produced by these orgs to make or modify a product, to improve plant or animals or to develop microorganisms for specific purpose.

A

biotechnology

172
Q

the study of the interrelationships among microorganisms and other microorganisms and the environment | relates primarily to the overall microbial processes that occur in soil, water, or food, as examples

A

Microbial Ecology or Environmental Microbiology

173
Q

They study the global and local contributions of microorganisms to the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles.

A

Microbial ecologists

174
Q

Microbial ecologists examine [1] that may exist in soils, waters, or in association with other organisms, including humans.

A

natural microbial communities

175
Q

This field of microbiology has become important because of an increased concern about the environment, particularly about pollution

A

environmental microbiology

176
Q

important because of the impact these organisms have on the environment

A

analysis of the effects of pollution on microorganisms

177
Q

centers on the role of microorganisms in the Biogeochemical Cycle

A

Soil Microbiology

178
Q

refers to the recycling of chemical elements by microorganisms for use by other microorganisms which is perhaps the most important role of soil microbes.

A

biogeochemical cycle

179
Q

decompose organic matter and transform C-, N-, S- & P-containing compounds into usable forms

A

Soil microbes

180
Q

All organisms need this to synthesize protein, nucleic acids, and other nitrogen- containing compounds

A

nitrogen

181
Q

During nitrogen cycle, nitrogen in the atmosphere goes through [1], [2], and [3].

A
  • fixation
  • nitrification
  • denitrification
182
Q

Nitrates assimilated into plants and animals after nitrificatlon go through [1], [2], and then [3] again.

A
  • decomposition
  • ammonification
  • nitrification
183
Q

deals with the study of microorganisms and their activities in natural waters which include lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, estuaries and sea

A

Aquatic Microbiology

184
Q

important concern as one form of water pollution

A

microbial pollution of water

185
Q

Environmental microbiologists that specialize in aquatic microbiology are concerned about

A

water and sewage treatment

186
Q

it is partially accomplished by bacteria in the holding tanks of sewage disposal plants, where feces, garbage, and other organic materials are collected and reduced to harmless waste

A

purification of waste water

187
Q

The most dangerous form of water pollution occurs when

A

feces enter the water supply

188
Q

Many diseases are perpetuated by this mode of transmission, in which a pathogen is shed in human or animal feces, contaminates water, and is ingested.

A

fecal-oral route of transmission

189
Q

Examples of such diseases are [1] and [2] caused by bacteria that are shed only in human feces.

A
  • typhoid fever

- cholera

190
Q

involves the use of microbes for treatment o f wastes and to to detoxify or degrade pollutants such as those coming from industrial plants or oil spills in waters

A

Bioremediation

191
Q

Scientists use microorganisms as [1] to clean up industrial and toxic wastes in the environment.

A

natural pollution fighter

192
Q

Oil spills from wrecked tankers represent some of the most dramatic examples of

A

chemical pollution

193
Q

The economic losses from [1] can be enormous.

A

contaminated fisheries and beaches

194
Q

Bioremediation may be employed by use of microbes that can gradually but completely degrade [1] (e.g., petroleum) to [2].

A

organic pollutants to carbon dioxide

195
Q

place where the oil spill occurred in Alaska in 1989

A

Exxon Valdez

196
Q

this species degrade oil for their carbon and energy requirement

A

Pseudomonas species

197
Q

deficient in essential elements, such as nitrogen and phosphorus

A

petroleum hydrocarbons

198
Q

Bioremediation of oil spills is greatly enhanced if the microbes used are provided with “fertilizer” (i.e. plant fertilizers) containing nitrogen and phosphorus, a process also referred to as | it involves addition of nutrients to speed up bioremediation

A

bioaugmentation

199
Q

science of microbiology revolves around two interconnected themes:

a. understanding the…
b. applying our understanding of the microbial world for the benefit of

A
  • microbial world

- humankind and our planet

200
Q

Perhaps one of the most advanced contribution of microbes to man is by providing insight on how scientists, particularly geneticists, can provide

A

cure to some diseases which were before deemed as “untreatable”.

201
Q

provides a clear understanding of the function of microorganisms, the structure of DNA, and the science of genetics, the study of heredity

A

Microbial Physiology and Genetics

202
Q

Scientists specializing in the field of Microbial Physiology and Genetics focuses on the nature of [1] and how it regulates the development and function of cells and organisms.

A

genetic information

203
Q

refers to gene manipulation to produce a desired gene product

A

Genetic Engineering

204
Q

Genetic Engineering involves the transfer and insertion of genes from one cell to another, so that when the cell receives a new gene, it can produce the gene product that is coded by that gene. This is called

A

Recombinant DNA Technology

205
Q

these cells chosen are those that are easily cultured in order to facilitate the large production of important gene products

A

recipient cells

206
Q

during genetic engineering, microorganisms are commonly used as

A

biological factories

207
Q

Examples of such advances include the use of genetically engineered bacteria in the production of insulin and interferons.

A

E. coli

208
Q

involves the study of microbial DNA, chromosomes, plasmids, and genes which has been very helpful in understanding the structure and function of genes (i.e., DNA)

A

Microbial genetics

209
Q

The field of microbial genetics has made a great impact on how some diseases may be treated by the process known today as

A

gene therapy

210
Q

Gene therapy is another interesting and exciting outcome of

A

recombinant DNA technology

211
Q

Gene therapy involves treating disease by [1] or [2].

A
  • replacing abnormal genes

- providing missing genes

212
Q

Disease treatment is facilitated by insertion of [1] into a cell to correct problems associated with abnormally functioning genes.

A

normally functioning genes

213
Q

This technique uses [1] to carry the missing or new gene and insert it into the chromosome.

A

harmless virus

Clinical Bacteriology [Lecture] (4 decks)

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