Module 1 study guide

Question 1

Concept of goodness of fit

Answer 1

A problem can be problematic or not depending on the environment in which it occurs.

Question 2

Definition of psychological disorders

Answer 2

individuals who are experiencing psychological symptoms that are distressing and/or causing impairment in functioning.

Question 3

Definition of Psychopathology

Answer 3

involves the scientific study of mental/psychological disorders.

Question 4

Why is it challenging to create a precise definition of psychological disorders?

Answer 4

Because of the inherent subjectivity involved in making decisions about symptom severity and the extent to which those symptoms cause distress or interfere with an individuals life.

Question 5

According to the DSM-V-TR, what is not considered a disorder?

Answer 5

Something that is acceptable or culturally approved in response to a common stressor or loss. Socially deviant behavior and conflict between an individual and society unless these behaviors result in dysfunction for the individual.

Question 7

Definition of distress

Answer 7

Do the symptoms cause the individual distress? Sometimes the symptoms won’t cause the individual stress but stress to the people around them.

Question 8

Definition of dysfunction

Answer 8

Do the symptoms interfere with the individual’s social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning? For example, often symptoms may make it difficult for someone to regularly fulfill their obligations for work, school or home.

Question 9

Definition of deviance

Answer 9

Do the symptoms deviate from the accepted social/cultural norms of society? Just because something is not considered “normal” doesn’t always mean it is a psychological issue.

Question 10

Definition of Danger

Answer 10

psychological disorders can sometimes put a person at risk of harming themselves or someone else.

Question 11

Factors that influence the expression and interpretation of psychological disorders

Answer 11

Cultural background, socioeconomic status (SES), genetic predisposition.

Question 12

Overall prevalence of psychological disorders and the developmental factors that affect their expression

Answer 12

Psychological disorders are common in the general population. Prevalence: or proportion of people who have been diagnosed with a psychological disorder, and the extent to which those rates vary between countries and cultures. Behavior that is normal for a 4-year-old is not normal for a 14 year old. Developmental trajectory: the idea that the common symptoms of a disorder vary according to a person’s age.

Question 13

Pre-20th century, three important contributions that have been made in the development and understanding of psychopathology

Answer 13

Hippocrates and the imbalance of the humors, Galen wandering uterus theory, Church with the witchcraft theory.

Question 14

Psychoanalysis

Answer 14

a comprehensive theory that attempts to explain the full continuum of behavior (i.e., from normal to abnormal)

Question 15

Behaviorism

Answer 15

Based on principles that consider all behavior to be learned because of experiences or interactions with the environment.

Question 16

Scientists-Practitioner model

Answer 16

When providing treatment, psychologists rely on the findings of research. In turn, when conducting research, the psychologist investigates topics that help to guide and improve psychological care.

Question 17

The biological perspective and key biological mechanisms that play a role in the onset of psychological disorders.

Answer 17

Assumes that psychological symptoms result from biological processes of the body, particularly the brain. The Neuron. Plaques and tangles.

Question 18

What four assumptions does “the modern psychodynamic perspective”

Answer 18

1. The forces at work behind the scenes are influential.
2. Personality shapes experience.
3. The past is powerful.
4. Our lives can be determined by unconscious forces (also called psychic determinism).

Question 19

What is the Humanistic perspective based on?

Answer 19

Based on phenomenology- a school of thought that holds that one’s subjective perception of the world is more important than the actual world, humanists believe that people are basically good and are motivated to self-actualize (develop their full potential).

Question 20

When are disorders said to occur in the humanistic perspective?

Answer 20

Disorders are said to occur when there is a failure in the process of self-actualization, usually because of people’s failure to recognize their weakness and establish processes and strategies to fulfill their potential for growth.

Question 21

What are the key points of the behavioral perspective?

Answer 21

Distressing or dysfunctional psychological symptoms are considered the results of maladaptive learning experiences. Biology interacts with the environment to influence behavior.

Question 22

What are the key points of the cognitive perspective?

Answer 22

Psychological disorders result primarily from distorted cognitive (mental) processes. Situations and events do not affect our emotions and behavior, rather the way we perceive or think about those events does. Cognitive triad, cognitive distortions. Ex) All or nothing thinking, overgeneralizing, jumping to conclusions.

Question 23

What are the key points of the sociocultural perspectives?

Answer 23

Proposes that psychological disorders must be understood within the context of social and cultural forces, such as race, ethnicity, gender roles, social class, and interpersonal resources. Psychological disorders do not simply result from biological or psychological factors but also reflect the social and cultural environment in which a person lives.

Question 24

Key points of the biopsychosocial model

Answer 24

Acknowledges that many different factors contribute to the development of psychological disorders and that different factors may be important for different people.

Question 25

What is the diathesis stress model?

Answer 25

Begins with the assumption that certain people have a pre existing vulnerability to certain psychological disorders. The presence of a biological or psychological predisposition to a disease or disorder is called a diathesis.

Question 26

Social determinants model

Answer 26

Question 27

How does the social determinants model work according to the article?

Answer 27

Our conceptualization suggests that risk for poor mental health and mental illnesses can be most broadly and effectively minimized by working at the deepest levels. As we conceptualize nongenetic (socioenvironmental) causation, public policies and social norms drive unequal distribution of opportunity (inequality), which drives the diverse social determinants of mental health, which in turn create stress and constrict options, which leads to poor choices and risky behaviors

Question 28

Describe the scientific method and how it applies to psychopathology

Answer 28

Stating the question, offering a theory and then constructing rigorous lab or field experiments to test the hypothesis.

Question 29

The four steps to critically evaluating the claim and why we should critically evaluate scientific information.

Answer 29

1. Consider any underlying motives for making a particular claim.
2. Evaluate the quality of the evidence used to support the claim.
3. Generate alternative explanations for the results.
4. Avoid using emotions or personal experiences when evaluating the claim.

Question 30

central nervous system (CNS)

Answer 30

brain and spinal cord. Brain contains approx. 100 billion nerve cells, or neurons. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Question 31

Neurons are composed of

Answer 31

Soma (cell body), dendrites (fingerlike projections from the soma), fiber through which a cell transports information from other neurons is called the axon.

Question 32

Cerebellum

Answer 32

important part of the brain for movement, balance, and coordination.

Question 33

Brain stem

Answer 33

connected to the spinal cord and controls basic survival functions throughout the body and the brain.

Question 34

Pons

Answer 34

connects the lower and upper parts of the brain; important structure for consciousness and sleep.

Question 35

Medulla

Answer 35

where the spinal cord meets the brain; responsible for basic survival functions.

Question 36

Cerebrum

Answer 36

divided into two halves called the cerebral hemispheres.

Question 37

Limbic system

Answer 37

regulates emotions and motivated behavior.

Question 38

Reticular formation

Answer 38

controls alertness.

Question 39

Spinal cord

Answer 39

pathway for neural fibers travelling to and from the brain.

Question 40

Pituitary gland

Answer 40

regulates glands all over the body.

Question 41

Hippocampus

Answer 41

involved in memory.

Question 42

Amygdala

Answer 42

involved in emotion and memory.

Question 43

Optic tract

Answer 43

vision

Question 44

Hypothalamus

Answer 44

manages the body’s internal state.

Question 45

Thalamus

Answer 45

relays sensory information.

Question 46

Cerebral cortex

Answer 46

(outer layer of cerebrum) involved in complex mental processes.

Question 47

Sympathetic nervous system

Answer 47

responds to dangerous or stressful situations.

Question 48

Parasympathetic nervous system:

Answer 48

Predominates in quiet “rest and digest” conditions

Question 49

Process of neurotransmission

Answer 49

relay the signals from one neuron to the next. When the electrical signal reaches the axon terminal, the neurotransmitters are released. They travel across the space between neurons called the synapse and land of the surface of neighboring neurons at which point they trigger the second neuron to fire, releasing the electrical impulse.

Question 50

Gene environment interacts

Answer 50

When environmental factors change the expression of pre-determined genotypes.
Ex) Poor childhood nutrition (environment) affects an adult’s ultimate height (genetics)

Question 51

Gene environment correlations

Answer 51

When the genotype influences the environment
Ex) someone who is introverted (genetics) actively selects more solitary activities (environment).

Question 52

Epigenetics

Answer 52

Focuses on heritable changes in the expression of genes, which are not caused by changes in actual DNA sequence but rather environmental exposures.

Question 53

Single case designs

Answer 53

Experimental studies conducted at the individual level (i.e., with a single person). This approach uses quantitative measurement (using numbers as opposed to qualitative measurement which is descriptive). Single case designs incorporate control conditions that allow clearer demonstration of causal relationships in a single individual. Most common single case design is known as the ABAB reversal design. A is baseline and B is treatment.

Question 54

Correlation design

Answer 54

The relationship between different variables or conditions, to understand aspects of behavior. Correlation is not causation.

Question 55

Experimental group design

Answer 55

The relationship between different variables or conditions, to understand aspects of behavior. Correlation is not causation.

Question 56

Cross sectional design

Answer 56

Provides a snapshot in time. A cross sectional design’s most basic form, participants are assessed once for the specific variable under investigation. This design is efficient and can sample large numbers of individuals; however, cause and effect can rarely be determined.

Question 57

Longitudinal design

Answer 57

Study that takes place over time. This design includes at least two and often more measurement periods with the same individuals at different times. Many longitudinal studies have provided valuable data about the development of psychological disorders across the lifespan.

Question 58

Epidemiological research designs

Answer 58

Observational epidemiology: presence of physical or psychological disorders in human populations. For psychological disorders, the most common method of documentation is to conduct a diagnostic interview using a structured interview format.
Experimental epidemiology: scientist manipulates exposure to either causal or preventive factors.

Question 59

Example of “correlation is not causation”

Answer 59

There’s a correlation between eating ice cream and getting sunburned because the two events are related. But neither event causes the other.

Question 60

Clinical significance

Answer 60

Refers to practical or importance or relevance of the results. Real world application.

Question 61

Statistical significance

Answer 61

likelihood that the results observed in a study are not due to chance. Determined using statistical tests such as t-tests, ANOVA, chi-square test, etc.

Question 62

Describe the entire clinical assessment process.

Answer 62

Series of steps designed to gather information (or data) about a person and their environment to make decisions about the nature, status, and treatment of psychological problems.

Question 63

Screening assessment

Answer 63

Assessments identify potential psychological problems or predict the risk of future problems if someone is not referred for further assessment or treatment.

Question 64

Diagnostic assessment

Answer 64

Refers to the identification of an illness or disorder. In some branches of medicine, diagnosed based on lab tests. In psychology, making a diagnosis is more complicated; it requires the presence of a cluster of symptoms.

Question 65

Outcome evaluation

Answer 65

measures program effects in the target population by assessing the progress in the outcomes that the program is to address.

Question 66

Differential diagnosis

Answer 66

When clinicians attempt to determine which diagnosis most clearly describes the patient’s symptoms. Patients often have sets of symptoms that require more than one diagnosis.

Question 67

Sensitivity

Answer 67

describes the ability of the screener (or the instrument) to identify a problem that exists (e.g., the screener identifies depression, and the person is depressed).

Question 68

Specificity

Answer 68

indicates the percent of the time that the screener accurately identifies the absence of a problem.

Question 69

standardization

Answer 69

Involves standard ways of evaluating scores, can involve normative or self-referent comparisons (or both)

Question 70

Normative comparison

Answer 70

require comparing a person’s score with the scores of a sample of people who are representative of the entire population or with the scores of a subgroup who are like the person being assessed.

Question 71

Self Referent comparisons

Answer 71

equate responses on various instruments with the person’s own prior performance, and they are used most often to examine the course of symptoms over time.

Question 72

Reliability

Answer 72

Consistency, or how well the measure produces the same result each time it is used.

Question 73

Test Retest reliability

Answer 73

addresses the consistency of scores across time. To estimate test- retest reliability, we administer the same instrument twice to the same people over some consistent interval, such as 2 weeks or 1 month. Then a correlation coefficient is calculated to estimate the similarity between scores.

Question 74

Validity

Answer 74

Refers to the accuracy, or the degree to which a test measures what is was intended to measure.

Question 75

Construct validity

Answer 75

reflects how well a measure accurately assesses a specific concept and not other concepts that may be related.

Question 76

Predictive validity

Answer 76

refers to the ability of a measure to predict performance at a guture date, such as the ability of the SAT to predict performance in college and scores on graduate school admissions tests.

Question 77

Developmental and cultural considerations in psychological assessment

Answer 77

Many factors affect a clinician’s choice of assessment techniques and instruments, but probably one of the most important facts is the patient’s age and developmental status. The nature of the tests chosen, the normative values against which patient scores and compared, the people involved in the testing process, and the testing environment can vary depending on whether the person to be assessed is a child, adult, or older person.

Question 78

Clinical interviews

Answer 78

Consist of a conversation between an interviewer and a patient, the purpose of which is to gather information about their psychological symptoms and make judgements related to the assessment goals.

Question 79

Unstructured interview

Answer 79

The clinician decides what questions to ask and how to ask them. The initial interview is unstructured, which allows the clinician to get to know the patient and helps determine what other assessments might be useful.

Question 80

Semi-structured interviews

Answer 80

Data collection method that relies on asking question within a predetermined thematic framework.

Question 81

Structured interview

Answer 81

Clinician asks each patient the same standard set of questions, usually with the goal of establishing a diagnosis. In the case of semi structured interviews, after the standard question, the clinician uses less-structured supplemental questions to gather additional information as needed.

Question 82

Personality tests

Answer 82

Measures personality characteristics, depends on its purpose and on whether one is assessing a healthy population or clinical sample, although many personality tests can be used in both groups.

Question 83

Neuropsychological testing

Answer 83

Measures how well your brain works. Mental functions like reading, language use, attention, etc.

Question 84

Intelligence tests

Answer 84

Originally created to predict success in school, these tests were designed to produce an intelligence quotient (IQ score). Focuses on four things: verbal comprehension index, working memory index, perceptual reasoning index, processing speed index.

Question 85

Controversy with intelligence tests

Answer 85

Roles of nature and nurture are hotly debated here. In addition to questions about how these factors influence intelligence, our conceptualization of intelligence has changed over time.

Question 86

Functional assesment

Answer 86

Include domains addressing activities of daily living, instrumental activities, memory and cognition, psychosocial and behavioral issues.

Question 87

Psychophysiological assesment

Answer 87

Directly measures the brain structure, the brain function, and nervous system activity. Measures physiological changes in the nervous system that reflect emotional or psychological events.

Question 88

What is the DSM and how is it used?

Answer 88

Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fifth edition. Created by the APA, used widely in American society to determine what IS and what is NOT a psychological disorder.

Question 89

Limitations of the DSM

Answer 89

• Poor psychometrics: despite trying to help reliability between diagnoses, its doesn’t have a great track record. Validity is a mess.
• Assumption of homogenity: Everyone who had OCD exhibits the same cluster or symptoms has followed a similar trajectory and has a similar course.
• Limited by the biomedical models : assumes that there are disorders, assumes the environment has a limited role in the development and maintenance of disorders.
• Deep biases: one organization is the gatekeeper- influenced by money, stakeholders’ agendas, etc.

Question 90

Benefits of the DSM

Answer 90

• Common language: gives researchers, clinicians… a common language to communicate.
• Access to help: Provides people and families with answers to why someone may be experiencing things differently than the norm.
• Scientific generalizations: gives us distinct categories of symptomology to research and create treatments, etiologies, models, etc.
• Clinical utility: gives all clinicians the same tool to determine what is and is not a “clinically significant” dysfunction.

Question 91

Comorbidity

Answer 91

The simultaneous presence of two or more diseases or medical conditions in a patient.

Question 92

Classification

Answer 92

classifying a disorder as either “have it” or “don’t have it”

Question 93

Dimensional models of psychopathology

Answer 93

alternative to categorical approaches by conceptualizing mental health disorders along continuous dimensions rather than discrete categories.

Question 94

Why is it important to discuss laws and ethics when learning about psychological disorders?

Answer 94

Protect researchers, the research participants, and the field of psychological study. There are many instances where it is necessary for the law to get involved for the safety of the self or others.

Question 95

What is evidence based practice?

Answer 95

Integration of the best available research with clinical expertise in the context of patient characteristics, culture, and preferences.
Best available research evidence+ clinical expertise+ patients values, characteristics, and circumstances= clinical decision making.

Question 96

What is the purpose of evidence based practice

Answer 96

To provide the best help possible. To review, analyze and translate the latest scientific evidence.

Question 97

Best available research evidence

Answer 97

To demonstrate that a treatment is effective, it is important to show that is more effective than a placebo.
Spontaneous remission: recovery without any treatment must also be ruled out when determining the effectiveness of a particular therapy.

Question 98

Clinical expertise

Answer 98

A clinician typically conducts the assessment to determine the appropriate diagnosis, if any, and the clinician knows about any specific client characteristics that may make certain research findings applicable or not.

Question 99

Patient Characteristics and Preferences

Answer 99

Just as the therapist brings certain characteristics and skills to the table, so does the patient seeking care. Thus, the evidence-based practice approach also emphasizes the importance of the patient’s individual characteristics and preferences.

Question 100

Functional status

Answer 100

defined as an individual’s ability to perform normal daily activities required to meet basic needs, fulfill usual roles, and maintain health and well-being.

Question 101

Readiness to change

Answer 101

Refers to the concept of motivation levels. People arrive in treatment at various stages of motivation depending on the circumstances that brought them there.

Question 102

Level of social support

Answer 102

there is an abundance of research demonstrating that people who have higher levels of social support when they enter treatment have better results.

Question 103

Beneficence and nonmaleficence

Answer 103

Psychologists always work to benefit their patients and are always careful not to do anything that causes harm.

Question 104

Fidelity and responsibility

Answer 104

Psychologists seek to establish relationships of trust and are aware of their responsibilities to patients, colleagues, and society in general.

Question 105

Integrity

Answer 105

Psychologists promote honesty and truthfulness in their science, teaching, and practice.

Question 106

Justice

Answer 106

Psychologists promote fairness and equality for all persons. Everyone has equal acdess to psychology’s contributions and services.

Question 107

Respect for people’s rights and dignity

Answer 107

Psychologists value the worth of everyone and uphold rights to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.

Question 108

Privacy

Answer 108

Right to privacy limits the access of other people to one’s body or mind, including one’s thoughts, beliefs, and fantasies.

Question 109

Confidentiality

Answer 109

Is an agreement between two parties (therapist and patient) that private information revealed during therapy will not be discussed with others.

Question 110

Privilege

Answer 110

Government assurance professionals can’t be forced to share information.

Question 111

HIPAA protections

Answer 111

Health insurance portability and accountability act. Ensure patient confidentiality by securing administrative, physical, and technical office procedures.

Question 112

Duty to warn and confidentiality

Answer 112

Warn if someone is going to harm themselves or others.

Question 113

How you become licensed to be a psychologist

Answer 113

Doctorate in psychology, 2 years of post-doctoral experience, and pass a national and state exam. Then align to the code of ethics.

Question 114

What is malpractice

Answer 114

The care psychologists use must meet commonly accepted professional standards. If care is not consistent with standards, the psychologist may be guilty.

Question 115

example of malpractice

Answer 115

Failure to obtain informed consent, negligent psychotherapy, and negligent release or dangerous acts. Ex) grief-stricken family members sometimes blame a mental health professional for not preventing a patients’ suicide.

Question 116

Consequences of malpractice

Answer 116

Loss of prescription privileges, loss of job.

Question 117

Informed consent

Answer 117

Potential participants must understand the aims and methods of the research, what they will be asked to do and what types of information they will be asked to provide. Risks and benefits of the experiment. Parental or guardian consent is needed for children to participate.

Question 118

assent

Answer 118

occurs when a child agrees to participate in a research study. Must be an active acceptance.

Question 119

Purpose of Institutional review boards (IRBSs)

Answer 119

Charged by the researcher’s institution with reviewing and approving the research using the guidelines just mentioned. Informed consent form, describing all aspects of the study in the persona’s language, is included in the research plan.

Question 120

Inequalities in research and how to correct them.

Answer 120

Require researchers to justify the demographics of the samples they study. Watson’s little albert experiment probably wouldn’t be approved by a current day IRB.