Module 1: Science and Psychology

Question 1

Which 7 sources of knowledge are there?

Answer 1

• Superstition
• Intuition
• Authority
• Tenacity
• Rationalism
• Empiricism
• Science

Question 2

What are the areas of psychological research?

Answer 2

• Psychobiology
• Cognition
• Human development
• Social psychology
• Psychotherapy

Question 3

Knowledge via superstition

Answer 3

Gaining knowledge based on subjective feelings, believe in chance, or believe in magical events. Such as the believe that breaking a mirror brings 7 years of bad luck.

Question 4

Knowledge via intuition

Answer 4

Knowledge we have without being consciously aware of where it came from.

Question 5

Knowledge via authority

Answer 5

Gaining knowledge through authority can be anyone we respect or a person who’s famous, such as your parents growing up or your teachers. However, a problem may arise when the perceived authority figure really is not knowledgeable in the subject area. For example, infomercials in which celebrities are often used to deliver the message or a testimonial about a product. Thus, we need to question authority sources of knowledge and develop an attitude of scepticism so that we do not blindly accept whatever we hear.

Question 6

Knowledge via tenacity

Answer 6

Gaining knowledge via tenacity involves hearing a piece of information so often ;that you begin to believe it is true and then, despite evidence to the contrary, cling stubbornly to that belief. This method is often used in political campaigns in which a slogan is repeated so often that we begin to believe it. The problem with gaining knowledge through tenacity is that we do not know whether the claims are true. As far as we know, the accuracy of such knowledge may not have been evaluated in any valid way.

Question 7

Knowledge via rationalism

Answer 7

Involves logical thinking. With this approach ideas are precisely stated, and logical rules are applied to arrive at a reasoned and sound conclusion. Rational ideas are often presented in the form of a syllogism. However, using a syllogism requires both premises (statements) to be true, or you cannot reach a sound conclusion. Take the example:
• All humans are mortal;
• I am a human;
• Therefore I am mortal.

Question 8

Knowledge via empiricism

Answer 8

involves objective observation and the experiences of the senses. The empiricist gains knowledge by seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching.

Question 9

Knowledge via science

Answer 9

The combination of rationalism and empiricism is what gaining knowledge via science is. Scientists collect data (make empirical observations) and test hypotheses with these data (assess them using rationalism).

Question 10

Hypothesis

Answer 10

A prediction regarding the outcome of a study. Often the prediction concerns the relationship between two variables (a variable is an event or behavior that has at least two values).

Question 11

Theory

Answer 11

An organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain phenomena and how they are related.

Question 12

Skeptic

Answer 12

A skeptic is a person who questions the validity, authenticity, or truth of something purportedly factual. Being a skeptic and using the scientific method involve applying three important criteria that help define science: systematic empiricism, public verification, and empirically solvable problems.

Question 13

Systematic empiricism

Answer 13

The observations must be made systematically to test a hypothesis and to refute or develop a theory.

Question 14

Public verification

Answer 14

The research is presented to the public in such a way that it can be observed, replicated, criticized, and tested for veracity by others.

Question 15

Peer review

Answer 15

Other scientists critique the research in order to decide whether it meets the standards for publication

Question 16

Empirically solvable problems

Answer 16

Questions that are potentially answerable by means of currently available research techniques

Question 17

Principle of falsifiability

Answer 17

A scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is possible to refute or disconfirm it. That is, the theory must predict not only what will happen but also what will not happen.

Question 18

Pseudoscience

Answer 18

A claim that appears to be scientific but that actually violates the criteria of science, is usually irrefutable and is also often confused with science.

Question 19

Psychobiology

Answer 19

a combination of biology and psychology. The study of brain organization or the chemicals in the brain

Question 20

Cognition

Answer 20

studies how humans process, store and retrieve information, i.e. solve problems, use reasoning, make decisions and use language. Whereas psychobiology researchers study the brain, cognitive scientists study the mind

Question 21

Human development

Answer 21

studies the human physical, social, and cognitive development.

Question 22

Gerontology

Answer 22

This field covers humans throughout their lifespan from prenatal to the elderly

Question 23

Social psychology

Answer 23

studies how we feel and affect one another research in this area combined the disciplines psychology and Sociology. How does being part of a group affect the individual.

Question 24

Psychotherapy

Answer 24

is designed to assess whether a therapy is effective in helping individuals. Researchers ask whether patients would have improved without therapy or did they perhaps improve simply because they thought the therapy was supposed to help

Question 25

Illusory correlation

Answer 25

The perception of a relationship that does not exist. We are just more likely to notice and to ignore the counter examples.

Question 26

Testable

Answer 26

Can be verified and can be falsified

Question 27

Examples of non-testable statements

Answer 27

• Speculative statements
• Normative statements
• Definitions
• Statements referring to unclear place or time

Question 28

Personal narratives (anecdotal evidence)

Answer 28

Something told from their own perspective in stead of scientific research.

Question 29

Occam’s razor

Answer 29

Is something the simplest explanation available?

Question 30

Homeopathy

Answer 30

Like cures like’. The illness can be cured with a substance that causes the same symptoms in healthy people.

• Fundamental assumption: the smaller the dose of an ingredient the stronger its effects.
• Evidence: the person used the medicine and says that she started to feel better (anecdotal evidence). But, there are many more factors that may have caused the person to start feeling better. That’s why we need to study cause-and-effect claims under controlled circumstances.

Question 31

Deduction

Answer 31

Starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion

Question 32

Criteria of deduction

Answer 32

• Validity: The reasoning is valid if true premises necessarily lead to true conclusions.
• Soundness: the reasoning is sound if it is not only valid, but premises are true as well.

Question 33

Types of deduction

Answer 33

• Modus Ponens (positive correlation: If A, then B)

- Modus Tollens (negative correlation: If not A, then not B either)

Question 34

Auxiliary hypothesis

Answer 34

Any claim conjoined with a theory that is under test, in order to derive observable predictions from the theory.

Question 35

Induction

Answer 35

Makes broad generalizations from specific observations. Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data.

Question 36

Criteria induction

Answer 36

• Strong/Weak: Inductive reasoning is strong if the premises make the conclusion plausible (and weak if it does not).
• Cogent: if it is strong and its premises are true

Question 37

Basic research

Answer 37

The study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake.

• Conducted in universities or laboratory settings
• E.g. identifying differences in capacity and duration in short-term memory and long-term memoryqq

Question 38

Applied research

Answer 38

The study of psychological issues that have practical significance and potential solutions.

• Conducted by private businesses and the government
• E.g. how stress affects the immune system, or determining the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Question 39

3 goals of science

Answer 39

• Description
• Prediction
• Explanation

Question 40

Description

Answer 40

Carefully observing behavior in order to describe it, for example the mating behavior of chimpanzees, or the play behavior of children.

Question 41

Prediction

Answer 41

Identifying the factors that indicate when an event or events will occur.

Question 42

Explanation

Answer 42

Identifying the causes that determine when and why a behavior occurs. We need to demonstrate that we can manipulate the factors to produce or eliminate it.
- E.g. if gender predicts channel surfing, why is that? The cause could be genetic or environmental. Maybe men have less tolerance for commercials and thus channel-surf at a greater rate.

Question 43

Illusory correlation

Answer 43

Another form of knowledge is through intuition where we have based our knowledge on events we have observed. This is called illusory correlation, the perception of a relationship that does not exist. We are just more likely to notice and to ignore the counter examples.