Module 1: Science and Psychology Flashcards
Which 7 sources of knowledge are there?
- Superstition
- Intuition
- Authority
- Tenacity
- Rationalism
- Empiricism
- Science
What are the areas of psychological research?
- Psychobiology
- Cognition
- Human development
- Social psychology
- Psychotherapy
Knowledge via superstition
Gaining knowledge based on subjective feelings, believe in chance, or believe in magical events. Such as the believe that breaking a mirror brings 7 years of bad luck.
Knowledge via intuition
Knowledge we have without being consciously aware of where it came from.
Knowledge via authority
Gaining knowledge through authority can be anyone we respect or a person who’s famous, such as your parents growing up or your teachers. However, a problem may arise when the perceived authority figure really is not knowledgeable in the subject area. For example, infomercials in which celebrities are often used to deliver the message or a testimonial about a product. Thus, we need to question authority sources of knowledge and develop an attitude of scepticism so that we do not blindly accept whatever we hear.
Knowledge via tenacity
Gaining knowledge via tenacity involves hearing a piece of information so often ;that you begin to believe it is true and then, despite evidence to the contrary, cling stubbornly to that belief. This method is often used in political campaigns in which a slogan is repeated so often that we begin to believe it. The problem with gaining knowledge through tenacity is that we do not know whether the claims are true. As far as we know, the accuracy of such knowledge may not have been evaluated in any valid way.
Knowledge via rationalism
Involves logical thinking. With this approach ideas are precisely stated, and logical rules are applied to arrive at a reasoned and sound conclusion. Rational ideas are often presented in the form of a syllogism. However, using a syllogism requires both premises (statements) to be true, or you cannot reach a sound conclusion. Take the example:
• All humans are mortal;
• I am a human;
• Therefore I am mortal.
Knowledge via empiricism
involves objective observation and the experiences of the senses. The empiricist gains knowledge by seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching.
Knowledge via science
The combination of rationalism and empiricism is what gaining knowledge via science is. Scientists collect data (make empirical observations) and test hypotheses with these data (assess them using rationalism).
Hypothesis
A prediction regarding the outcome of a study. Often the prediction concerns the relationship between two variables (a variable is an event or behavior that has at least two values).
Theory
An organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain phenomena and how they are related.
Skeptic
A skeptic is a person who questions the validity, authenticity, or truth of something purportedly factual. Being a skeptic and using the scientific method involve applying three important criteria that help define science: systematic empiricism, public verification, and empirically solvable problems.
Systematic empiricism
The observations must be made systematically to test a hypothesis and to refute or develop a theory.
Public verification
The research is presented to the public in such a way that it can be observed, replicated, criticized, and tested for veracity by others.
Peer review
Other scientists critique the research in order to decide whether it meets the standards for publication
Empirically solvable problems
Questions that are potentially answerable by means of currently available research techniques
Principle of falsifiability
A scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is possible to refute or disconfirm it. That is, the theory must predict not only what will happen but also what will not happen.
Pseudoscience
A claim that appears to be scientific but that actually violates the criteria of science, is usually irrefutable and is also often confused with science.
Psychobiology
a combination of biology and psychology. The study of brain organization or the chemicals in the brain
Cognition
studies how humans process, store and retrieve information, i.e. solve problems, use reasoning, make decisions and use language. Whereas psychobiology researchers study the brain, cognitive scientists study the mind
Human development
studies the human physical, social, and cognitive development.
Gerontology
This field covers humans throughout their lifespan from prenatal to the elderly
Social psychology
studies how we feel and affect one another research in this area combined the disciplines psychology and Sociology. How does being part of a group affect the individual.
Psychotherapy
is designed to assess whether a therapy is effective in helping individuals. Researchers ask whether patients would have improved without therapy or did they perhaps improve simply because they thought the therapy was supposed to help
Illusory correlation
The perception of a relationship that does not exist. We are just more likely to notice and to ignore the counter examples.
Testable
Can be verified and can be falsified
Examples of non-testable statements
- Speculative statements
- Normative statements
- Definitions
- Statements referring to unclear place or time
Personal narratives (anecdotal evidence)
Something told from their own perspective in stead of scientific research.
Occam’s razor
Is something the simplest explanation available?
Homeopathy
Like cures like’. The illness can be cured with a substance that causes the same symptoms in healthy people.
- Fundamental assumption: the smaller the dose of an ingredient the stronger its effects.
- Evidence: the person used the medicine and says that she started to feel better (anecdotal evidence). But, there are many more factors that may have caused the person to start feeling better. That’s why we need to study cause-and-effect claims under controlled circumstances.
Deduction
Starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion
Criteria of deduction
- Validity: The reasoning is valid if true premises necessarily lead to true conclusions.
- Soundness: the reasoning is sound if it is not only valid, but premises are true as well.
Types of deduction
- Modus Ponens (positive correlation: If A, then B)
- Modus Tollens (negative correlation: If not A, then not B either)
Auxiliary hypothesis
Any claim conjoined with a theory that is under test, in order to derive observable predictions from the theory.
Induction
Makes broad generalizations from specific observations. Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data.
Criteria induction
- Strong/Weak: Inductive reasoning is strong if the premises make the conclusion plausible (and weak if it does not).
- Cogent: if it is strong and its premises are true
Basic research
The study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake.
- Conducted in universities or laboratory settings
- E.g. identifying differences in capacity and duration in short-term memory and long-term memoryqq
Applied research
The study of psychological issues that have practical significance and potential solutions.
- Conducted by private businesses and the government
- E.g. how stress affects the immune system, or determining the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
3 goals of science
- Description
- Prediction
- Explanation
Description
Carefully observing behavior in order to describe it, for example the mating behavior of chimpanzees, or the play behavior of children.
Prediction
Identifying the factors that indicate when an event or events will occur.
Explanation
Identifying the causes that determine when and why a behavior occurs. We need to demonstrate that we can manipulate the factors to produce or eliminate it.
- E.g. if gender predicts channel surfing, why is that? The cause could be genetic or environmental. Maybe men have less tolerance for commercials and thus channel-surf at a greater rate.
Illusory correlation
Another form of knowledge is through intuition where we have based our knowledge on events we have observed. This is called illusory correlation, the perception of a relationship that does not exist. We are just more likely to notice and to ignore the counter examples.
