Module 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards
Anatomy
The study of the structure of the body and its parts.
Physiology
The study of how the parts of the body function and work together to make the human body.
Developmental anatomy
The study of the changes that begin in the human body at conception and proceed into adulthood.
Embryology
The subdivision of developmental anatomy that covers the first eight weeks following conception.
Regional anatomy
The analysis of specific parts of the body.
Surface anatomy
Used for diagnosis. Example: A physician feels the skin of the patient for swollen glands or lumps.
Gross anatomy
The systems that can be seen.
What other name can mean gross anatomy?
Macroscopic anatomy
Microscopic anatomy
The study of structures so small that you will be required to use a microscope to see them.
Systemic anatomy
Anatomy of the organ systems.
Organ systems
Groups of organs related by shared functions.
Comparative anatomy
The anatomy of nonhuman species used to assist in the study of the human body.
What are the eleven systems of the human body?
Skeletal, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, muscular, integumentary, lymphatic, urinary, endocrine, and reproductive.
What makes up the skeletal system?
The bones and their associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
It provides support, protection, shape, allows the body to move, and produces red blood cells.
What makes up the nervous system?
The brain, spinal cord, nerves, and all of the body’s sensory receptors, including vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch receptors.
What are the functions of the nervous system?
It detects sensations and controls movement, controls intellectual function, regulates the other organ systems, and is “in charge” of many physiological processes, both conscious and unconscious.
What makes up the circulatory system?
The heart, blood vessels, and blood.
What are the functions of the circulatory system?
It transports gases, nutrients, waste products, hormones, and many other molecules throughout your body. It has an active role in the immune system and aids in the regulation of body temperature.
What makes up the respiratory system?
The lungs, respiratory passages, and diaphragm.
What are the functions of the respiratory system?
It enables the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and the air and has a role in regulating blood pH.
What makes up the digestive system?
The mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, appendix, and rectum.
What are the functions of the digestive system?
It breaks down foods to be absorbed out of the intestines into the blood and eliminates waste products.
What makes up the muscular system?
The muscles of the body. (duh.)
What are the functions of the muscular system?
It powers the movements of the skeleton, maintains posture when standing, enables internal organs such as the heart, diaphragm, stomach, and intestines to move, and generates heat.
What makes up the integumentary system?
Skin, hair, sweat glands, oil glands, and nails.
What are the functions of the integumentary system?
It protects the body, regulates body temperature, prevents water loss, and aids in the production of vitamin D.
What makes up the lymphatic system?
The spleen, thymus gland, lymphatic vessels, and lymph nodes.
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
It rids the body of foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, maintains the right amount of fluid around the cells, and absorbs fat from the digestive tract.
Which system is also known as the immune system?
The lymphatic system.
What makes up the urinary system?
The kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra.
What are the functions of the urinary system?
It removes waste products from the blood, regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance.
What makes up the endocrine system?
Hormone glands such as the hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroids, thymus, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.
Hormones
Signal molecules secreted by glands.
What are the functions of the endocrine system?
It regulates other organ systems, influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other unconscious internal functions of the body.
What makes up the reproductive system?
The female ovaries, vagina, uterus, and mammary glands; the male testes, penis, and prostate gland.
What are the functions of the female reproductive system?
Produces oocytes for fertilization, provides a place for fetal development, produces milk for the newborn, and produces important reproductive hormones.
What are the functions of the male reproductive system?
It produces and transfers sperm for fertilization and produces important reproductive hormones.
Organ
A group of tissues specialized for a particular function.
Tissues
Groups of cells forming various building materials of the body.
What are the four types of tissue?
Nervous, muscular, connective, and epithelial.
What is the location and function of nervous tissue?
Makes up the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It has the ability to conduct electrical signals.
What is the function of muscular TISSUE?
It comprises the muscles that enable the skeleton to move, the heart to beat, and other internal organs to push food or fluid along.
Where is connective tissue found?
It makes up bone, cartilage, the deeper layer of skin, and the bindings or connectors around and between organs.
What is the location of epithelial tissue?
It is found on the surface of the skin, the inner lining of the respiratory passages, digestive tract, urinary tract, and reproductive tract.
What are the seven levels of organization of the human body?
The whole organism, organ systems, organs, tissues, cells, organelles, and molecules.
Which three levels of the human body make up gross anatomy?
The whole organism, organ systems, and organs.
Cell
The basic unit of life.
Organelle
“Little organs” formed from incredibly complex molecules such as proteins, fatty acids, and carbohydrates.
Homeostasis
A state of dynamic equilibrium in the body with respect to its internal environment and functions.
What is the goal of physiology?
The goal is to maintain life and health in spite of the many changes, inside and out, that are always occurring.
Set point
Ideal normal value of a variable around which homeostasis is maintained through a normal range of values that are acceptable to the body.
Stress
A factor that causes one or more physiological variables to move away from its homeostatic set point.
What two systems “decide” if a variable is moving away from a state of homeostasis?
The nervous and endocrine systems.
Control center
The part of the body, either central nervous system or endocrine gland, that receives information about a variable, determines the set point, and signals a response to correct imbalances.
Receptor
A structure in the body that monitors the values of your body’s variables.
Effector
A structure in the body that can change the value of a variable in response to a signal from the control center.
Negative-feedback system
A control mechanism consisting of receptors, control center, and effectors through which homeostasis in the body is maintained by regulation of the body’s organ systems. It is called negative feedback because the control system opposes or reverse the original stress.
If a hormone is involved in a negative-feedback system, what system of the body must be involved?
The endocrine system.
Plasma membrane
The boundary of the cell. It holds the cell together and controls entry and exit of substances. It has many receptors on it that allow it to determine what substances are transported into the cell and what substances are allowed out of the cell.
Nucleus
Contains the genetic material of the cell (DNA). The control center of the cell.
Nuclear envelope
A porous double membrane that covers the nucleus.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid. When the cell is not reproducing, it is called chromatin. When it is reproducing, the DNA forms chromosomes. DNA codes for all the proteins the cells produces.
Cytoplasm
The substance that exists between the nucleus and the cell membrane.
Cytosol
The fluid part of the cytoplasm that contains dissolved chemicals such as ions, proteins, and other molecules. These chemicals are used for various processes, including the breakdown of sugars and fats.
Ribosomes
“Tiny kitchens” within the cell. Proteins are synthesized here.
Free ribosomes
Ribosomes that stand alone. (Not attached to the ER)
Endoplasmic reticulum
The network within the cell’s cytoplasm.
Smooth ER
A series of tubes that are used in intracellular transport and the production of lipids and carbohydrates.
Rough ER
Used for intracellular transport and protein synthesis and has ribosomes on its surface, hence the name “rough.”
If a cell has mostly smooth ER, what is most likely its function?
Production of lipids and carbohydrates.
If a cell has mostly rough ER, what is most likely its function?
Protein synthesis.
Golgi apparatus
The cell’s packaging plants. They take chemicals and package them for many purposes, especially secretion.
Secretory vesicle
A tiny membrane-bound sac for the chemicals that the Golgi apparatus has secreted. The secretory vesicle is responsible for releasing these chemicals outside the plasma membrane.
Lysosome
A type of vesicle that breaks down lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
Microtubules
Spiral strands of proteins that form a rope-like structure. They influence the movement and shape of the cell.
Centrioles
Found in the centrosome, they are important in cellular reproduction.
Cilia
Tiny hairs formed from an intricate arrangement of microtubules.
Microfilaments
Contribute to movement and enable certain cells to contract.
Intermediate filaments
Responsible for strengthening and supporting cells, allowing them to maintain their normal shape.
Mitochondria
The major site of ATP synthesis in the cell. The majority of cellular energy is produced here.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate. The “currency” in which cellular energy is stored.
Mitochondrial DNA
DNA found in the mitochondria. It codes for the production of specific proteins needed by the mitochondria. This type of DNA is passed down through the mother.
Proteins
Large molecules formed by the joining of amino acids.
What determines the properties of a protein?
The type and number of amino acids joined together, along with the order in which they join.
Catalyst
Molecules that speed up chemical reactions without being either reactants or products.
Name three types of proteins.
Enzymes (which act as catalysts), hormones, or antibodies (which fight infections).
Transcription
A written representation of something.
Translation
The process of rendering the meaning of one thing (transcription) into something else (protein).
Name the four DNA nucleotide bases.
Adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
Mitosis
The method by which cells reproduce.
What are the four stages of mitosis? (In order)
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
What three types of cells cannot undergo mitosis, and why?
Mature neurons, mature skeletal cells, and mature cardiac muscle cells. They lack centrioles.
What is a phospholipid composed of?
Two fatty acids (non-polar) and a phosphate group (polar).
Phospholipid bilayer
The double-layered wall of the plasma membrane made of phospholipids.
Hydrophilic
Water-loving
Hydrophobic
Water-hating
Channel proteins
Proteins found in the plasma membrane that allow water and water-soluble molecules in and out.
What does the prefix glyco mean?
Glucose
Glycoprotein
A protein that has a carbohydrate chain attached to it. It typically acts as a marker that allows cells to recognize each other.
Receptor proteins
Proteins that receive messages from other cells .
Glycolipid
A lipid with a carbohydrate attached to it. It helps to anchor some membrane proteins in place and provide structural support to the plasma membrane.
What are some characteristics of cholesterol?
It makes up 1/3 of the lipid part of the plasma membrane. It is lipid-soluble (non-polar). It maintains the correct level of firmness in the cell.
What does each part of the fluid mosaic model refer to?
Fluid: The phospholipid bilayer that forms a kind of fluid.
Mosaic: There are many different kinds of chemicals floating within the phospholipid bilayer, especially proteins.
What are the functions of the plasma membrane?
It delimits the cell (hold it together), provides receptors so that the cell can sense its environment, and has selective permeability.
Selective permeability
The ability to let certain materials in or out while restricting others.
What are the four paths for substances to enter the plasma membrane?
Lipid-soluble nature, channel proteins, charged channel proteins, and carrier proteins.
How do fatty molecules enter the plasma membrane?
They travel through the phospholipid bilayer. Because nonpolar molecules can dissolve other nonpolar molecules, these fatty molecules can dissolve through the phospholipids.
How do small molecules enter the plasma membrane?
They enter through channel proteins since they are small enough to fit.
How do ions enter the plasma membrane?
They enter through charged channel proteins. The proteins orient their amino acids so that the channel will form either a positive or negative charge, thus attracting ions of the opposite charge.
How do large molecules enter the plasma membrane?
They enter through carrier proteins.
Carrier proteins
Proteins that are designed to accept a molecule with a specific shape.
Mediated transport
The way by which large molecules can enter the plasma membrane with the aid of carrier proteins.
What three conditions must be considered in the process of mediated transport?
Specificity, competition, and saturation.
Specificity
The carrier protein is made for a specifically shaped molecule. Without a certain shape, that molecule cannot enter the cell.
Competition
Similarly shaped molecules can compete for the same carrier protein. Typically, the molecule with the higher concentration will win the competition.
Saturation
There is a limit to how many molecules can enter a cell at a time. If a carrier protein is busy transporting many molecules, it is saturated.
What are the two basic types of passive transport?
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Diffusion
The movement of ions or molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Passive transport
Transport of molecules or ions through the plasma membrane that does not require ATP (energy).
Active transport
Transport of molecules or ions through the plasma membrane that requires ATP (energy).
ADP
Adenosine diphosphate. This is ATP with one fewer phosphate.
Facilitated diffusion
Diffusion that occurs with mediated transport and requires no ATP (energy).
Pumping
A type of active transport in which the cell is forcing molecules or ions to travel opposite of the way diffusion demands.
Endocytosis
The process by which large molecules are taken into the cell.
Pinocytosis
The process that allows proteins dissolved in fluid to enter the plasma membrane by folding inwards until a vesicle with the protein is formed.
Phagocytosis
The process that allows the cell to ingest particles.
Exocytosis
Transportation of material from inside the cell to outside the cell using vesicles: also called secretion.
What cell organelle plays a part in exocytosis?
The Golgi apparatus.
Why does endocytosis and exocytosis require ATP?
The size of the molecules demand ATP.
What are the two types of endocytosis?
Pinocytosis and phagocytosis.
