Module 1 - Cardiovascular System

Question 1

How do cells respond to stress?

Answer 1

Cells respond to stress by using reserves to continue functioning or adapting through changes.

Question 2

What does a cell do in response to stress? (5 concepts)

Answer 2

Atrophy, Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Metaplasia, Dysplasia

Question 3

Describe Atrophy

Answer 3

Reversible reduction in size due to disuse or malnutrition

E.g. When a muscle is not used it atrophies and reduces in size

Question 4

Describe Hypertrophy

Answer 4

Size Increase due to increased workload

E.g. A muscle is stressed so increases in size to better manage stress

Question 5

Describe Hyperplasia

Answer 5

Cell numbers increase due to such things as hormonal stimulation

E.g. Increase in breast size during pregnancy

Question 6

Describe Metaplasia

Answer 6

Cell Type Replacement to better endure stress

Question 7

What is dysplasia?

Answer 7

Abnormal changes in size, shape and appearance of a cell. Potentially reversible but can also precede cancer

Question 8

What is cell degeneration?

Answer 8

Non-lethal damage. Generally affected the cytoplasm. Can be caused by various factors (swelling, fatty infiltrates, and atrophy). Affecting organs with active cells like the liver, heart, and kidneys. Prompt treatment can slow cell degeneration.

Question 9

What is Toxic Injury? Including Endogenous and Exogenous Factors

Answer 9

Toxic injury is a type of injury due to exposure to a toxin. It is caused by endogenous factors like metabolic errors or exogenous factors like drugs or alcohol

Question 10

What is Infectious Injury?

Answer 10

An injury caused by bacteria or other pathogens that disrupt cell synthesis

Question 11

What is Physical Injury?

Answer 11

A type of injury resulting from thermal (e.g. radiation, atmospheric pressure) or mechanical (e.g. trauma, extreme temperatures) disruptions

Question 12

Describe Dysplasia

Answer 12

Abnormal Growth

Question 13

What is deficit injury?

Answer 13

Deficit injury occurs when there is a deficit of necessary substances. Such as water, oxygen, nutrients, temperature regulation, waste disposal, leading to cell disruption or necrosis

Question 14

What are the 4 components of blood?

Answer 14

55% plasma (mostly water, and essential protiens)
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets

Question 15

What are the layers of the pericardium sac?

Answer 15

Epicardium - outer protective layer
Myocardium - muscular middle layer
Endocardium - thin inner layer

Question 16

What are the chambers of the heart and in which order does blood flow through them?

Answer 16

Right atrium (1st), Right Ventricle (2nd), Left Atrium (3rd), Left Ventricle (4th)

Question 17

What are the 4 Valves of the heart and where are they located and finally their function?

Answer 17

Tricuspid Valve - located between the right atrium and right ventricle
Pulmonary Valve - located between the right ventricle and pulmonary valve
Mitral Valve - located between the left atrium and left ventricle
Aortic Valve - located between left ventricle and aorta

All the valves prvent backflow of blood

Question 18

List the flow order of the heart

Answer 18

Superior Vena Cava
Inferior Vena Cava
Right Atrium
Tricuspid Valve
Right Ventricle
Pulmonary Valve
Pulmonary Artery

Pulmonary Veins
Left Atrium
Mitral Valve
Left Ventricle
Aortic Valve
Aorta

Question 19

What are the 3 types of circulation?

Answer 19

Pulmonary - circulation that moves blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left ventricle

Systemic - circulation that delivers oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body, returning deoxygenated blood to the right atrium

Coronary - circulation that supplies the heart with oxygenated blood and removes deoxygenated blood

Question 20

What is a haemodynamic disorder?

Answer 20

A condition affecting the dynamics of blood circulation within the body, including blood flow patterns, pressures or volumes

Question 21

What is oedema? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management

Answer 21

A haemodynamic disorder resulting from an imbalance in starling forces, that being capillary hydrostatic pressure, interstitial hydrostatic pressure, capillary oncotic pressure and interstitial oncotic pressure.

Aetiology includes high blood pressure, chemical mediators in injury, excessive fluid intake causing overload or water intoxications, and lymphatic system obstructions.

Manifestations include weight gain, swelling or puffiness both localised and systemic, in extreme cases threatening life, especially of vital organs.

Diagnosis through X-ray, medical history, physical exams and blood analysis

Management is heavily dependent on location but involves compression, elevation if in limbs or special management for brain, lung and other organ affecting oedema. Diuretics to reduce fluid content. Finally reducing sodium intake in diet.

Question 22

What is hypertension? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management

Answer 22

A haemodynamic disorder in which blood pressure is elevated outside of normal ranges, typically 140/90mmHg or higher. Note that normal blood pressure varies from person to person due to environmental factors.

Essential hypertension has no identifiable cause. However, Secondary hypertension results from other conditions such as lifestyle factors, high cholesterol, and diabetes.

In extreme cases can cause, blurred vision, chest pain and other similar symptoms.

Because it is typically asymptomatic. It is often diagnosed unintentionally during blood pressure assessment such as during checkups or when being assessed for other reasons.

Management includes lifestyle changes, ACE inhibitors (relaxes blood vessels), Angiotensin 2 receptor blockers (relax blood vessels), Calcium channel blockers (relax blood vessels), Diuretics (reduce water content, therefore blood pressure)

Question 23

What is Circulatory Shock? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management

Answer 23

A haemodynamic disorder that occurs when the body is not getting enough blood flow, thus depriving its cells of nutrients and is life-threatening. The effects of shock are reversible in early stages, a delay in diagnosis and/or timely initiation of treatment can lead to irreversible changes including multiorgan failure and death.

Most often caused by a serious heart attack, but can also be due to heart failure, a serious chest injury, and blood clots in the lungs.

Symptoms include rapid breathing, severe shortness of breath, sudden rapid heartbeat (tachycardia), loss of consciousness, weak pulse, low blood pressure (hypotension), sweating and pale skin.

Diagnosed through assessment of heart and lung sounds and rhythm. How much you urinate is an indicator of kidney function. Blood pressure assessment which on its own can be used to diagnose circulatory shock.

Management includes oxygen supplementation through a nasal tube or mask, breathing assistance via a ventilator, and intravenous fluids. Blood pressure and heart medications, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin 2 receptor blockers, calcium channel blockers, and diuretics.

Question 24

What is vascular disorder? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management

Answer 24

A haemodynamic disease affecting blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients throughout the body and remove waste from your tissues.

Vascular problems often occur because of fat and cholesterol buildup in blood vessels. This slows or blocks blood flow inside your arteries or veins.

Symptoms include wounds that won’t heal over pressure points, such as heels or ankles. Numbness, weakness or heaviness in muscles. Burning or aching pain at rest commonly in the toes and at night while lying flat. Restricted mobility, thickened, opaque toenails, varicose veins.

Treatment and management include lifestyle changes such as eating a heart-healthy diet and getting more exercise. Medicines such as blood pressure medicines, blood thinners, cholesterol medicines, and clot-dissolving drugs. Non-surgical procedures, such as angioplasty, stenting, and vein ablation. Surgery.

Question 25

What is Peripheral arterial disease? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management

Answer 25

A Circulatory condition in which narrowed blood vessels reduce blood flow to the limbs.

A sign of fatty deposits and calcium building up in the walls of the arteries (atherosclerosis). Risk factors include ageing, diabetes and smoking.

Symptoms include leg pain particularly when walking but can improve with rest or while exercising. Pain in the buttocks. Cool skin, loss of hair on the legs, thinning of skin on the legs, or ulcers.

Treatments include a better lifestyle, no smoking or tobacco use, exercise and a healthy diet are often successful treatments. Medication includes statin, vasodilators and anticoagulants.

Question 26

What is an aneurysm?

Answer 26

Abnormal swelling or bulge in the wall of a blood vessel, such as an artery. They can occur anywhere throughout the circulatory system, but most commonly develop along the aorta and in the blood vessels of the brain.

Symptoms include thunderclap headache, nausea and vomiting, stiff neck, blurred or double vision, sensitivity to light, seizures, drooping eyelid and a dilated pupil, pain above and behind your eye, pain in the abdomen, arm back or leg, bleeding and headaches.

Question 27

What is Thrombophlebitis? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management

Answer 27

Thrombophlebitis is a condition that causes a blood clot to form and block one or more veins, often in the legs.

Usually occurs in surface-layer veins located in areas with poor blood flow. In rare cases, the clot could indicate a risk of a more serious condition called deep vein thrombosis

Symptoms include redness, swelling and pain

Treatment includes elevating the affected site, cold or warm compresses, anti-inflammatory medication and in rare cases, antibiotics/anti-inflammatory non-steroidal medications are required.

Question 28

What is Phlembothrombosis? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management

Answer 28

Occurs when a blood clot in a vein forms independently from the presence of inflammation of the vein

Inactivity such as bed rest during recovery can lead to the condition. Often progresses to thrombophlebitis in which the blood clot is accompanied by inflammation.

Symptoms include warmth, tenderness and pain.

It is diagnosed through an ultrasound. This may be accompanied by a blood test to check for levels of a substance that dissolves clots.

Treatment includes applying heat to the painful area. Elevating the area and wearing compression clothing. NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug). The condition does usually improve on its own

Question 29

What is varicose veins? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical

Answer 29

Varicose veins are bulging and enlarged veins. Any vein close to the skin’s surface can become varicose, most often affecting the legs as standing and walking can increase the pressure in the veins of the lower body.

Symptoms are typically cosmetic. However, sometimes can cause aching pain, discomfort, bruising, heaviness (especially if in the legs), itching or swelling.

It can be an indicator of circulatory problems.

Treatments include compression stockings, exercising and a better lifestyle, or surgery to remove or close the veins

Question 30

What is Coronary Artery Disease? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management

Answer 30

Damage or disease in the heart’s major blood vessels. It is usually caused by the build-up of plaque, causing the coronary arteries to narrow, limiting the blood flow to the heart.

Symptoms include pain in the chest, indigestion or nausea, lightheadedness or sweating, fast heart rate or shortness of breath.

Treatments include lifestyle changes (weight loss, smoking, exercise, low-fat diet), statin, anticoagulants, beta blockers, antianginal and calcium channel blockers, coronary stent and coronary angioplasty, coronary artery bypass surgery

Question 31

What is Acute Coronary Syndrome? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical

Answer 31

Any condition brought on by a sudden reduction or blockage of blood flow to the heart. Most often caused by plaque rupture or clot formation in the heart’s arteries

Symtpoms include pain in the chest, arm, or jaw, which can occur at rest or exertion, shortness of breath, chest pressure, or sweating.

Treatments include medical procedures, coronary angioplasty, coronary stent, and cardiac catheterisation. Anticoagulants, beta-blockers, statin and cholesterol medication. Cardiac rehabilitation

Question 32

What is Heart Failure? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical

Answer 32

Heart failure is a condition where the heart does not pump enough blood for your body needs.

Symptoms include shortness of breath when active or lying down, fatigue and weakness, swelling in the legs, ankles and feet, rapid or irregular heartbeat, reduced ability to exercise, wheezing, and a cough that doesn’t go away that could bring up white or pink mucus with blood.

Treatments include heart transplant, diuretics, SGLT2 inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers, heart valve surgery, ventricular assist devices, beta-blockers, pharmaceutical drugs, angioplasty or bypass surgery.

Question 33

What is Valve Defects? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical

Answer 33

Any cardiovascular disease process involving one or more of the four valves of the heart

Symptoms include chest pain, palpitations caused by irregular heartbeats, fatigue, dizziness, low or high blood pressure depending on which valve disease is present, shortness of breath, abdominal pain due to an enlarged liver, and leg swelling.

Treatments include medication and heart valve surgery (either replacement or repair)

Question 34

What is Cardiomyopathy? Describe the pathophysiology, aetiology, clinical

Answer 34

Any disorder affecting the heart muscle causes cardiomyopathy causing the heart to lose its ability to pump blood well. Heart rhythm can also be disturbed leading to arrhythmias.

Symptoms include pain in the chest, dizziness, fatigue or loss of appetite, abnormal heart rhythm, fast heart rate, or murmur, bloating or fluid in the abdomen, coughing, shortness of breath, swelling in extremities or weight gain

Treatment includes anticoagulants, beta-blockers, ace inhibitors, diuretic, antihypertensive, statin, antiarrhythmic

Question 35

What processes do cells use to respond to stress? what is an example in everyday life of this occurring?

Answer 35

Cells encounter stressors and diseases throughout their lifespan. Cells respond to such stressors by using reserves to continue functioning or adapting through change. These include: Atrophy, Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Metaplasia and Dysplasia. For example, when working out the muscle is stressed this then stimulates hypertrophy muscle size increases so the muscle can better handle the stressor. Without reserves or adaptations they die (necrosis)

Question 36

What are the types of cell injury and how do they occur?

Answer 36

Cell injury can occur through 4 distinct injury types. Toxic injury caused by endogenous factors such as metabolic errors, or exogenous factors like alcohol. Infectious injury which is caused by agents like viruses and bacteria which often distrupt cell synthesis. Physical injury resulting from thermal, eg. radiation or mechanical, eg. trauma. And finally deficit injury, which occurs due to deficits in water, oxygen, nutrients, temperature regulations, or waste disposal leading to cell disruption or death

Question 37

What can cell injury indicate and cause?

Answer 37

Cell injury can often be an indicate and causes diseases

Question 38

How does a cell respond to injury or stress?

Answer 38

Cells use reserves or adapt in response to injury or stress, if reserves run out and cells cannot adapt, they die (necrosis)

Question 39

What is cell degeneration and what effects does it have on the cell? What is inhibited and what factors affect the degeneration itself

Answer 39

The process in which cells lose their structure and function over time, often as a result of aging or injury. Generally affecting the cytoplasm it is influenced by intrinsic factors (such as genetic limitations) and extrinsic factors (such as environmental damage). The effects of cell degeneration can be seen across all body systems and can lead to various diseases, disorders and death.

Question 40

What are some common effects of aging in cells?

Answer 40

Reduced elasticity, muscle mass, loss of structure and function, leading to changes in skin colour and feel

Question 41

What is blood composed of?

Answer 41

Blood is 55% plasma containing mostly water and essential proteins, whilst the rest is made up of formed elements erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells) and platelets.

Question 42

What are the layers surrounding the heart?

Answer 42

There are 3 layers of tissue surrounding the heart. The outer most layer is the epicardium and it serves as protection. The 2nd layer is composed of myocardium tissue and is a thick muscular layer. The final deepest and thinnest layer is endocardium and it lines the chamber of the heart

Question 43

Explain the flow of blood through the heart including the 4 chambers and valves

Answer 43

Deoxygenated blood enters through the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava into the right atrium. It then flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. Then through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery. It then becomes ovygenated and is transported from the lungs to the Left Atrium via the Pulmonary Veins. It then flows throw the Mitral Valve into the Left Ventricle. Finally it passes through the Aortic Valve to the Aorta where it is then pumped through the body