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CELS191 > Module 1 and 2 > Flashcards

Module 1 and 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Bacteria engulfed to form chloroplasts

A

Cyanobacteria

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2
Q

Bacteria engulfed to form mitochondria

A

Proteobacteria

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3
Q

Theory of origin of eukaryotes

A

Endosymbiont theory

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4
Q

3 domains of life

A

Eukarya, archaea, bacteria

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5
Q

Bacteria

A

Prokaryotic microorganisms typically having cell walls of peptidoglycan

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6
Q

Chloroplast

A

Eukaryotic organism not an animal, plant or fungi

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7
Q

Eukaryote

A

Organism with membrane-enclosed nucleus and organelles

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8
Q

Fungi

A

Eukaryotic organisms with cells walls and that obtain food from other organisms

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9
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

Polymer in bacterial cell walls consisting of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides

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10
Q

Prokaryote

A

Organism with cells that lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus and organelles

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11
Q

Protist

A

Any eukaryote that is not a plant, animal or fungus (most unicellular)

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12
Q

Types of monosaccharides

A

Hexose (6C), pentose (5C)

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13
Q

What are lipids made of

A

Combinations of glycerol, fatty acids and hydrocarbon rings

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14
Q

Deoxyribose vs ribose sugar

A

C2 is bonded to H in deoxyribose, OH in ribose (DEOXY ribose)

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15
Q

Plant energy macromolecule

A

Amylose, amylopectin (starch) (carbohydrate)

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16
Q

Plant structure macromolecule

A

Cellulose (carbohydrate)

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17
Q

Animal energy molecule

A

Glycogen (carbohydrate)

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18
Q

Amino acid structure

A

NH2CHRCOOH (R branch differs between them)

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19
Q

Nucleobase structures

A

A, G (purines, 2 rings), C, T, U (pyrimidines, 1 ring)

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20
Q

Simple carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides (hexose, 6C, pentose, 5C)

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21
Q

Protein functions

A

Structural, regulatory, contractile, transport, storage, protective, catalytic, toxic

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22
Q

Function of complex carbohydrates

A

Recognition (cell membrane: pathogens, other cells), energy, structure

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23
Q

Function of lipids

A

Structural (phospho and glycolipids), regulatory (cholesterol), energy (fat: triacylglycerol)

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24
Q

Biomolecule

A

A molecule or ion involved in the biological processes of living organisms

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25
Q

Carbohydrate

A

A sugar (monosaccharide), double sugar (disaccharide) or polysaccharide

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26
Q

Cellulose

A

Structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joint by β glycosidic linkages

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27
Q

DNA function

A

Carries the genetic instructions for all cellular processes (growth, development, function and reproduction)

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28
Q

Heterogeneous

A

Diverse in structure, and/or composed of different biological molecules

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29
Q

Macromolecule

A

A very large molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules

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30
Q

RNA function

A

Protein synthesis, gene regulation, genome for some viruses

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31
Q

Which lipid stabilises membrane fluidity

A

Cholesterol

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32
Q

Membrane protein functions

A

Signal transduction, cell recognition, intercellular joining, linking cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix, membrane transport

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33
Q

What enables cell recognition

A

Glycoproteins in the cell membrane

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34
Q

Water channel proteins name

A

Aquaporins

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35
Q

Organelle functions

A

Special conditions for specific processes, keep incompatible processes apart, allow specific substances to be concentrated, form concentration gradients, package substances for transport/export

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36
Q

Carrier protein definition

A

Membrane bound protein that transports solutes across membrane by binding to solute on one side of membrane and undergoing a structural change to transfer solute to other side

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37
Q

Cell definition

A

Smallest collection of matter that perform all activities required for life

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38
Q

Channel protein definition

A

Membrane bound protein that forms a hydrophilic channel through which solutes can pass without any change to structure or shape of protein

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39
Q

Co transport definition

A

Coupling of the downhill diffusion of one substance to the uphill transport of another against its concentration gradient

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40
Q

Extracellular matrix

A

Meshwork surrounding animal cells, consisting of glycoproteins, polysaccharides and proteoglycans synthesised and secreted by cells

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41
Q

Glycoprotein

A

Protein with one or more covalently attached carbohydrates

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42
Q

Osmoregulation

A

The process by which solute concentration and water is balanced by a cell across a semi permeable membrane

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43
Q

Phospholipid

A

Glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group

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44
Q

Signal transduction

A

Linkage of a mechanism, chemical or electromagnetic stimulus to a specific cellular response

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45
Q

Smooth ER functions

A

Metabolism of carbs, synthesis of lipids for membranes, detoxification (drugs and toxins), storing calcium ions (used as a signal)

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46
Q

Rough ER function

A

Protein synthesis (secreted and membrane bound enter lumen)

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47
Q

Golgi apparatus function

A

Glycosylation: addition or modification of carbs to proteins
Make polysaccharides
Sort proteins
Direct vesicle trafficking

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48
Q

Constitutive exocytosis

A

Continuous secretion, releases ECM proteins

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49
Q

Regulated exocytosis

A

Occurs due to a signal, releases hormones and neurotransmitters

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50
Q

Pseudopodium

A

“hands” of cell membrane reaching out to consume food

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51
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Eating, phagocytic vacuole digested by lysosomes

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52
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Drinking, uptake vesicle formed with aid of coat protein

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53
Q

Receptor mediated endocytosis

A

Selective pinocytosis (with receptors). Allows bulk quantities of specific substances to be obtained

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54
Q

Lysosomes

A

Interiorly acidic, with hydrolytic enzymes to degrade proteins, lipids, carbs, nucleic acids and other substances for other processes. Digest and recycle unwanted substances (called autophagy)

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55
Q

Vacuole

A

Large vesicle, perform lysosome like functions. Central vacuoles absorb water enabling the cell to grow without large increase in cytoplasm.

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56
Q

The cell needs energy…

A

For mechanical work, to make new materials, for transport

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57
Q

Glycolysis equation

A

Glucose -> 2 pyruvate

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58
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation components

A

Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

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59
Q

Pyruvate oxidation equation

A

2 pyruvate -> 3 Acetyl coA

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60
Q

Electron carrier molecules (respiration)

A

NADH (stage 1 and 2), FADH2 (stage 2)

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61
Q

How is ATP synthesised (chemiosmosis)

A

ATP synthase protein, acts as reverse ion pump (concentration gradient of ions used to synthesise ATP (ADP + Pi))

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62
Q

How proton gradient exists (respiration)

A

Proton complexes pump H+ from matrix to intermembrane space using exergonic flow of electrons down electron chain

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63
Q

Where ADP and Pi come from for ATP synthesis

A

Every time ATP is used it is split up into ADP and Pi with the release of energy

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64
Q

Why does a plasma membrane need to maintain its fluidity

A

Transport of nutrients in and out of cell, growth and movement, enable proteins to move within membrane

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65
Q

Autophagy

A

Intracellular digestion of old or unwanted organelles or other cellular structures within autophagic lysosomes

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66
Q

Catabolic

A

Metabolic pathway involving the break down of molecules into smaller molecules with less energy (smaller units oxidised to release energy)

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67
Q

Anabolic

A

Metabolic pathway involving synthesis of a large molecule from smaller units

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68
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

Energy coupling mechanism using stored energy to drive cellular work

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69
Q

Citric acid cycle

A

Acetyl coA is oxidised to CO2

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70
Q

Collagen

A

Glycoprotein in ECM of animal cells that forms strong fibres

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71
Q

Cytoplasm vs cytosol

A

Cytoplasm: contents of cell bounded by plasma membrane, excluding nucleus. Cytosol: actual semi fluid portion of cytoplasm

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72
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Network of microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments extending through cytoplasm to serve a variety of functions

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73
Q

Phase 1 cell wall structure

A

Microfibrils: cellulose fibres

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74
Q

Phase 2 cell wall structure

A

Matrix: hemicellulose, pectin, extensin

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75
Q

Hemicellulose

A

Heterogeneous group of polysaccharides (long chain one sugar, others branch off)

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76
Q

Cellulose

A

Long ribbons (bonds through and across), very strong, resist tension, form microfibrils

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77
Q

Pectin

A

Branched, negatively charged polysaccharides which hold cell wall together (gel like properties)

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78
Q

Extensin

A

Protein which controls extensibility of cells by cross linking with pectin and cellulose to dehydrate cell wall and increase strength

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79
Q

Rosettes

A

Cellulose synthase, big transmembrane proteins which put glucose monomers together and push out as cellulose microfibrils running parallel to cortical microtubules

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80
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Network of microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments throughout the cytoplasm

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81
Q

Middle lamella

A

Mostly pectin, serves as glue holding cells together

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82
Q

Cell wall functions

A

Morphology (regulating shape) (e.g ordered=expansion in specific directions), structural support (protoplast pushes against cell wall), prevents excessive water uptake

83
Q

Vacuoles function

A

High concentration of solutes, so water osmoses in, allowing plant cell to stay turgid, protoplast push against cell wall

84
Q

Secondary cell wall

A

UNDERNEATH primary, thicker, stronger, provides more structural support. More cellulose, lignin, less pectin

85
Q

Lignin function

A

Acts to exclude water and increase strength and rigidity

86
Q

Plasmodesmata function

A

Communication and transport of resources between cells, free exchange of small molecules. Cell walls quite dynamic so require this communication

87
Q

Proteoglycans structure and function

A

Proteins with extensive sugar attachments (can be 95% carb) (sticky), trap water in ECM to resist compression

88
Q

Microtubules structure and function
(biggest diameter cytoskeleton component)

A

Spiral of tubulin monomers forming tube, may radiate out from centrosome.
Motility: motor proteins walk along them to transport vesicles or organelles, arranged to make cilia or flagella

89
Q

Microfilaments structure and function (smallest diameter cytoskeleton component)

A

Twisted ropes made of double chain of actin subunits. Resist tension, interactions with motor proteins allow movement (e.g actin-myosin muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming, amoeboid movement)

90
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Different proteins throughout body (eg keratins in hair, lamins in nucleus, neurofilaments in neurons) Supercoiled into cables, stronger, less dynamic. Maintain cell shape, anchor organelles

90
Q

Desmosomes

A

Anchor cells together

91
Q

Tight junctions

A

Prevent fluid movement between cells, continuous seal, variability in tightness

92
Q

Gap junctions

A

Cytoplasmic contact between cells, quick cell to cell communication

93
Q

Integrins (membrane proteins)

A

Membrane proteins which attach to fibronectins which attach to ECM

94
Q

Fibronectins (glycoproteins)

A

Attach to collagen fibres and integrins to connect cells

95
Q

Ribosomes structure and function

A

Made of ribosomal RNA and proteins, two subunits (one large one small). Translation

96
Q

Nuclear envelope

A

Double membrane, perinuclear space continuous with lamen of ER

97
Q

Nuclear Lamina

A

Intermediate filaments on the inside of the nuclear envelope made of lamins, provide structure and help with packing DNA

98
Q

Nuclear pores

A

Channels made of proteins (nucleoporins) form complex, span two membranes, control nucleo-cytoplasmic exchange

99
Q

What’s allowed in to nucleus

A

Signals, building blocks for mRNA, energy for chemical synthesis

100
Q

What’s allowed out of nucleus

A

tRNA, mRNA

101
Q

Nucleolus

A

Non membrane bound prominent part of nucleus in non-dividing cells responsible for making rRNA and subunits

102
Q

DNA packaging process

A

2nm interacts with histones to 10nm strand (beads called nucleosomes), interacts with different histone to 30nm strand, folds in flower shape to form 300nm strand, folds into chromosome

103
Q

Euchromatin

A

Less densely packed DNA in nucleolus, active genes as transcription machinery can access it

104
Q

Heterochromatin

A

More densely packed DNA in nucleolus, inactive genes as transcription machinery cannot access it. Dynamic relationship between euchromatin and heterochromatin.

105
Q

Catabolic

A

Metabolic activity which breaks down

106
Q

Anabolic

A

Metabolic activity which builds up

107
Q

Nuclease generic function

A

Enzyme that can remove nucleotides

108
Q

Polymerase generic function

A

Enzyme that can add nucleotides

109
Q

Characteristics of life

A

Cellular organisation, reproduction, metabolism, homeostasis, heredity, response to stimuli, growth and development, adaptation through evolution

110
Q

Natural selection requirements

A

Variance, inheritance, selection, time

111
Q

4 macromolecules nearly all life is composed of

A

Proteins, nucleic acids, complex carbohydrates, lipids

112
Q

Nucleic acid functions

A

DNA: carries genetic instructions for all cellular processes, RNA: protein synthesis, gene regulation, genome for some viruses

113
Q

Protein definition

A

Molecules by which cells perform their functions in the whole organism

114
Q

Complex carbohydrates functions

A

Recognition, energy, structure

115
Q

Cell functions

A

Make cellular materials, obtain raw materials, remove waste, generate energy, control all of this

116
Q

Organelle functions

A

Provide compartments with special conditions, keep incompatible substances apart, form concentration gradients, package things for transport/export

117
Q

What affects membrane fluidity

A

Composition of fatty acids (saturation), temperature, cholesterol

118
Q

Membrane protein functions

A

Signal transduction, cell recognition, intercellular joining, linking cytoskeleton and ECM, membrane transport

119
Q

Difference between passive and active membrane proteins

A

Passive: don’t require energy to change shape (but may require a signal), Active: require ATP to change shape

120
Q

Types of membrane proteins

A

Channel and carrier

121
Q

Endomembrane system definition

A

Membrane system interconnected by direct physical contact or transport by vesicles

122
Q

Organelles in the endomembrane system

A

Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane

123
Q

How is the golgi oriented

A

Cis facing ER, trans facing cell membrane

124
Q

Vesicles definition

A

Membrane bound organelle, move along pathways bound to proteins moving along microtubules

125
Q

Vesicles function

A

Transport, secretory, vacuoles, artificial (liposomes: drug and vaccine delivery)

126
Q

Evidence for endosymbiont theory

A

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, ribosomes (so can produce some of their own proteins)

127
Q

Resulting gamete chromosome numbers from nondisjunction in meiosis I

A

n+1, n+1, n-1, n-1

128
Q

Resulting gamete chromosome numbers from nondisjunction in meiosis II

A

n, n, n+1, n-1

129
Q

Down Syndrome cause

A

Trisomy 21

130
Q

Familial Down Syndrome cause

A

Centric fusion: Robertsonian translocation (1/2 21, 1/2 14)

131
Q

Klinefelter Syndrome cause

A

XXY

132
Q

Turner Syndrome cause

A

X0

133
Q

Lejeune Syndrome cause

A

Deletion of tip of short arm of chromosome 5

134
Q

Deletion chromosomal abnormality

A

Chromosomal segment removed (chromosome may be visibly shorter)

135
Q

Inversion chromosomal abnormality

A

Segment reversed
Most don’t involve centromere
Chromosomes loop around to try and match up

136
Q

Duplication chromosomal abnormality

A

Segment repeated

137
Q

Translocation chromosomal abnormality

A

Segment from one chromosome moved to non homologous chromosome
Broken in middle of gene: misregulated gene resulting in overexpression
Reciprocal: swap

138
Q

Why does X inactivation occur in mammalian females

A

Dosage compensation to balance X linked gene expression levels

139
Q

Why do most X chromosome genetic diseases not show a mosaic effect

A

Because the gene product can move throughout the body

140
Q

Components needed for PCR

A

DNA template, primers, DNA polymerase, dNTPs (free nucleotides)

141
Q

PCR denaturing

A

Temperature increased to separate DNA strands

142
Q

PCR annealing

A

DNA primers made to bind by decrease in temperature

143
Q

PCR extension

A

Starting at 3’ end of primer, DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to extend molecule in 5’ -> 3’ direction

144
Q

Possible number of combinations due to independent assortment

A

2^n

145
Q

Actin

A

Globular protein that links into chains, two of which wist helically about each other to form chains

146
Q

Chromatin

A

Complex of DNA and proteins (histones) making up eukaryotic chromosomes

147
Q

Cilia (flagella)

A

Membrane bound appendage on surface of eukaryotic cell composed of a specific arrangement of microtubules and responsible for motility of cell

148
Q

Electron acceptor

A

Oxidising agent that accepts electrons transferred from another compound

149
Q

FADH2

A

Redox cofactor created during citric acid cycle and utilised during the last part of respiration in the electron transport chain

150
Q

Histone

A

Small protein with high proportion of positively charged amino acids that binds to negatively charged DNA and plays a key role in chromatin structure

151
Q

Hydrolytic enzyme

A

Digestive enzyme which can break contents within food vacuoles down

152
Q

Ligand

A

Molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one

153
Q

Microfibrils

A

Made of cellulose molecules and synthesised by cellulose synthase secreted into the intermembrane space where they become embedded in a matrix of other polysaccharide proteins

154
Q

NADH

A

Electron donor to electron transport chain

155
Q

Nucleotide parts

A

Five carbon sugar, nitrogenous base, one to three phosphate groups

156
Q

Plastid

A

One of a family of closely related organelles, including chloroplasts and chromoplasts (found in the cells of photosynthetic eukaryotes)

157
Q

Why must pyrimidines bond with purines

A

2 rings + 3 rings, DNA has a constant diameter

158
Q

A,T hydrogen bond number

A

2

159
Q

C, G hydrogen bond number

A

3

160
Q

Pyrimidines

A

C, T, U

161
Q

Purines

A

A, G

162
Q

Nucleic acid strands synthesised in which direction

A

5’ -> 3’

163
Q

3’ position

A

3rd carbon, chemically reactive, interact with negatively charged phosphate group

164
Q

Bonds joining nucleotides

A

Phosphodiester

165
Q

Where are DNA origins of replication

A

in A, T rich areas

166
Q

Describe DNA structure

A

Double stranded, helical, anti parallel

167
Q

How is the leading strand synthesised

A

DNA polymerase III continuously adds DNA nucleotides

168
Q

How is the lagging strand synthesised

A

Nucleotides added in okazaki fragments in 5’ -> 3’ direction, but overall growth toward replication fork (semi discontinuous)

169
Q

What direction is the template strand read in

A

3’ -> 5’

170
Q

Helicase function

A

Recognise origins of replication, pull strands apart

171
Q

Primase function

A

Internal 3’ hydroxyl group to start adding nucleotides from. Can only add RNA nucleotides, makes a short stretch of RNA primer

172
Q

DNA polymerase III function

A

Adds DNA nucelotides, knocks ssbp off as it moves, proof reads

173
Q

Single strand binding proteins function

A

Prevents strands snapping back together or being degraded

174
Q

DNA polymerase I function

A

Removes RNA nucleotides and fills gaps with DNA nucleotides

175
Q

Ligase function

A

Forms phosphodiester bonds to link fragments together

176
Q

Topoisomerase function

A

Moves ahead of replication fork, cuts strands and glues back together to release tension

177
Q

Exonuclease function

A

During replication process, removes nucleotide from end of strand using 3’ -> 5’ DNA polymerase III exonuclease activity

178
Q

Endonuclease function

A

After replication process, removes nucleotides from within a sequence (big chunk removed around mistake, re extends from exposed 3’, ligase rejoins strand)

179
Q

How are sister chromatids held together

A

Centromere

180
Q

Interphase G1

A

Metabolic activity and growth, replication of organelles

181
Q

Interphase S

A

Synthesis (replication of DNA), metabolic activity and growth

182
Q

Interphase G2

A

Metabolic activity, growth and preparation for cell division (enzymes produced)

183
Q

Prophase

A

Chromosomes duplicated, start to condense, nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate, spindle starting to form

184
Q

What are spindle fibres

A

Microtubules

185
Q

Prometaphase

A

Nuclear envelope finishes disintegrating, kinetochore microtubules connect to centromeres, non kinetochore microtubules form, cytoskeleton disassembles as spindle fibre forms, centrioles migrate to opposite poles

186
Q

Metaphase

A

Chromosomes line up on metaphase plate

187
Q

Anaphase

A

Sister chromatids pulled apart by spindle fibre, degradation of proteins holding chromatids together, non kinetochore microtubules lengthen to push cell poles apart

188
Q

Telophase

A

Cleavage furrow starting to form by constricting belt of actin filaments forming contractile ring. Spindle has disintegrated (broken down into tubulin to be recycled)

189
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Final division into separate cells, chromosomes come together in new nuclear envelope and decondense

190
Q

How do plant walls separate (cytokinesis)

A

Vesicles form expanding membrane partition called cell plate

191
Q

Prophase I

A

Homologous chromosomes align and synapse (join), crossing over occurs at chiasmata

192
Q

What lines up on metaphase plate in metaphase I

A

Chiasmata (but kinetochores still attach to centromeres)

193
Q

When does independent assortment/segregation occur

A

Metaphase I

194
Q

Random fertilisation

A

Source of diversity in sexual reproduction: random which sperm fertilises which egg

195
Q

Aneuploidy

A

Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis (result of nondisjunction)

196
Q

Polyploidy

A

Possession of multiple sets of chromosomes

197
Q

Autopolyploid

A

Self fertilisation can be viable as can pair up properly

198
Q

Allopolyploid

A

Different species breed, only viable if chromosome doubling occurs

199
Q

How does a phosphodiester linkage form

A

Condensation reaction between OH of phosphate group and H of OH group on ribose sugar C3

200
Q

What is at the 5’ end of a DNA strand

A

Phosphate group

201
Q

What is at the 3’ end of a DNA strand

A

Hydroxyl group on 3rd carbon of pentose sugar. (why primers have internal 3’ hydroxyl groups)

202
Q

Does ligase make phospodiester bonds or DNA Pol I remove RNA primer first?

A

DNA Pol I removes RNA primer

CELS191 (7 decks)

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