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Patho I - Exam #2: Endocrine > Module 1 > Flashcards

Module 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the primary organs of the endocrine system?

A
  • hypothalamus
  • pituitary gland
  • thyroid & parathyroid gland
  • adrenal glands
  • pancreas
  • gonads
  • placenta
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2
Q

What does the endocrine system do?

A
  • coordinate and integrate cellular activity throughout the body to maintain homeostasis
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3
Q

How does the endocrine system produce an effect on the body?

A
  • chemical messengers (hormones) use the circulatory pathways
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4
Q

What are the functions of the endocrine system?

A
  • homeostasis
  • storage and utilization of energy
  • regulation or growth, development, and reproduction
  • response to environmental stimuli
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5
Q

Compared to the nervous system, the endocrine system speed of response is _______ but has a _______ response time.

A
  • slower

- prolonged

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6
Q

T/F: Endocrine system response is more diffuse than the nervous system response.

A
  • True
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7
Q

What are the three general components of the endocrine system?

A
  • endocrine glands
  • target organs
  • hormones
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8
Q

What is a ductless gland that secretes hormones into blood?

A
  • endocrine gland
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9
Q

What is the organ that contains cells with receptors that have hormone specific receptors?

A
  • target organ
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10
Q

What are chemical messengers released by one cell and exert a biological action on a target cell?

A
  • hormones
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11
Q

Describe the action of a hormone

A
  • a single hormone can facilitate multiple effects
    OR
  • many hormones collectivly produce a single effect
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12
Q

How is it possible for a single hormone to produce multiple effects?

A
  • different receptor types
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13
Q

Why does the body have the ability to create one effect with many hormones?

A
  • protective mechanism
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14
Q

What are the types of hormone signaling?

A
  • endocrine
  • paracrine
  • autocrine
  • intracrine
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15
Q

Describe the MOA of endocrine signaling

A
  • hormones travel through blood stream to reach distant target tissue
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16
Q

Describe the MOA of paracrine signaling

A
  • hormones release and act locally on the neighboring cells
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17
Q

Describe the MOA of autocrine signaling

A
  • hormone is released by a cell then acts on the same cell that released it
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18
Q

Describe the MOA of intracrine signaling

A
  • hormone produced in a cell and acts within the cell itself
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19
Q

How are hormone secretions regulated?

A
  • negative feedback

- positive feedback

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20
Q

Which is more common, negative or positive feedback?

A
  • negative
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21
Q

Describe how negative feedback regulates hormone secretion

A
  • hormone action directly or indirectly inhibits further release of that hormone
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22
Q

Describe how positive feedback regulates hormone secretion

A
  • hormone action directly of indirectly stimulates further release of that hormone
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23
Q

What are the two types of negative feedback loops?

A
  • short (one or two steps)

- long (many steps)

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24
Q

What is a variation on the negative feedback loop?

A
  • increasing levels of hormone stimulate the hormones inhibiting factor
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25
Q

How is a positive feedback loop terminated?

A
  • outside stimulus
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26
Q

How are the types of hormones classified?

A
  • derivative content

- solubility

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27
Q

What are the derivative content types of hormone classifications?

A
  • a.a.
  • peptide/protein
  • steroid
  • fatty acid
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28
Q

What are the solubility types of hormone classifications?

A
  • lipid soluble, water insoluble (lipophilic, hydrophobic)

- water soluble, lipid insoluble (hydrophilic, lypophobic)

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29
Q

What types of hormones are lipophilic?

A
  • steroid

- thyroid

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30
Q

What is the precursor for all steroid hormones?

A
  • cholesterol
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31
Q

How are lipophilic hormones circulated in the plasma?

A
  • bound to a protein carrier
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32
Q

What types of hormones are hydrophilic?

A
  • most
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33
Q

How are hydrophilic hormones circulated in the plasma?

A
  • ‘free’
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34
Q

Which has a shorter half life, lipophilic or hydrophilic hormones?

A
  • hydrophilic

- free and easily broken down

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35
Q

What are the cellular mechanisms of hormonal action?

A
  • direct binding of hormone receptors

- signal transduction

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36
Q

Where are hormone receptors located?

A
  • cell membrane or within the cell
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37
Q

What do the number of receptors reflect?

A
  • local or systemic conditions
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38
Q

What is up-regulation?

A
  • [low hormone] will increase the number of receptors
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39
Q

What is the net result of up-regulation?

A
  • increases sensitivity
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40
Q

What is down-regulation?

A
  • [high hormone] will decrease the number of receptors
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41
Q

What is the net result of down-regulation?

A
  • decreased sensitivitity
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42
Q

T/F: Receptor number is a fixed quantity

A
  • False, dynamic & continuous turnover
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43
Q

Healthy receptors are adapting to make physiology _____ efficient while unhealthy receptors are making physiology _____ efficient.

A
  • more

- less

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44
Q

Define signal transduction

A
  • process by which hormones are communicated into the cell
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45
Q

What are the two types of signal transduction hormones?

A
  • primary

- secondary

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46
Q

What is the type of signal transduction for lipophilic hormones?

A
  • primary
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47
Q

What is the type of signals transduction for hydrophilic hormones?

A
  • secondary
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48
Q

Define primary messenger as a type of signal transduction

A
  • hormone itself enters the cell and mediates cell function
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49
Q

Define secondary messenger as a type of signal transduction

A
  • messenger “link” between primary messenger and inside of the cell
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50
Q

How does a secondary messenger produce its action?

A
  • hormone attaches to target receptor on cell membrane

- receptor stimulates interior cascade to produce desired physiologic action

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51
Q

Why do hydrophilic hormones require a secondary messenger mechanism for signaling?

A
  • water soluble hormone can’t cross membrane

- needs messenger to communicate to interior structures

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52
Q

What is the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis (HPA)?

A
  • critical signaling pathway for the endocrine system
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53
Q

What are the two sections of the HPA?

A
  • anterior pituitary

- posterior pituitary

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54
Q

Describe the movement of hormones in the anterior pituitary

A
  • hypothalamus releases “pituitary releasing hormones”
  • releasing hormones descend via hypophyseal portal system
  • releasing hormones either stimulate or inhibit release of pituitary hormone
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55
Q

What is the hypophyseal portal system?

A
  • capillaries in hypothalamus communicate with pituitary capillaries before entering the venous system
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56
Q

Describe the movement of hormones in the posterior pituitary

A
  • hypothalamic neurons produce hormones

- released via hypothalamus neuron directly into post. pit and enter blood

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57
Q

What are the two posterior pituitary hormones?

A
  • ADH

- oxytocin

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58
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

A
  • ‘links’ CNS to endocrine system
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59
Q

Where is the hypothalamus located?

A
  • diencephalon of CNS
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60
Q

What are the hormones that are released from the hypothalamus that control the ant. pit?

A
  • The SUBmarine DA Prefers SOMe CRunchy Green growth hormone.
  • TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)
  • Substance-P
  • DA
  • PRF (prolactin releasing factor)
  • Somatostatin (SRIF - somatotropin release-inhibiting factor)
  • CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)
  • GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
  • GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone)
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61
Q

What is TRH and its action in the ant. pit?

A
  • thyrotropin releasing hormone

- stimulates release of TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)

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62
Q

What is GnRH and its action in the ant. pit?

A
  • gonadotropin releasing hormone

- stimulates the release of LH (luteinizing hormone) and FHS (follicle stimulating hormone)

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63
Q

What is somatostatin and its action in the ant. pit?

A
  • SRIF - somatotropin release-inhibiting factor

- inhibits release of GH (somatotropin) and TSH

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64
Q

What is GHRH and its action in the ant. pit?

A
  • growth hormone releasing hormone

- stimulates the release of GH

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65
Q

What is CRH and its action in the ant. pit?

A
  • corticotropin releasing hormone

- stimulates release of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) and B-endorphin

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66
Q

What is substance-P’s action in the ant. pit?

A
  • inhibits synthesis/release of ACTH

- stimulates release of GH, FSH, LH, and prolactin

67
Q

What is DA’s action in the ant. pit?

A
  • inhibits synthesis/release of prolactin
68
Q

What is PRF and its action in the ant. pit?

A
  • prolactin releasing hormone

- stimulates the release of prolactin

69
Q

What is the hypophysis?

A
  • pituitary gland
70
Q

What is the adenohypophsis?

A
  • anterior pituitary gland
71
Q

What are the regions of the ant. pit?

A
  • pars distalis
  • pars tuberalis
  • pars intermedia
72
Q

What is the neurohypophysis?

A
  • posterior pituitary gland
73
Q

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

A
  • regulates the activity of most endocrine glands in the body
  • aka: the Master Gland
74
Q

What are the bodily functions that the pituitary gland regulates?

A
  • growth
  • metabolism
  • reproduction
  • lactation
  • fluid balance
  • response to stress
75
Q

What are the regions of the post. pit?

A
  • median eminence
  • infundibular stem of pit stem
  • infundibular process
76
Q

What is the function of oxytocin in females?

A
  • stimulates milk ejection and uterine contraction
77
Q

What can be used to induce labor?

A
  • synthetic versions of oxytocin
78
Q

What is the function of oxytocin in males?

A
  • ? sperm motility

- sexual activity

79
Q

What is the target tissue of oxytocin?

A
  • mammary gland

- uterus during pregnancy

80
Q

What are the stimuli for oxytocin release?

A
  • distention of cervix
  • breast stimulation
  • positive emotional response
81
Q

How is oxytocin release regulated?

A
  • positive feedback
82
Q

What are the stimuli for oxytocin inhibition?

A
  • cessation of external stimulus

- negative emotional stimuli

83
Q

What can a deficiency of oxytocin result in?

A
  • impaired nursing
84
Q

What is the function of ADH?

A
  • control osmolality/osmolarity of plasma
85
Q

What does ADH lead to?

A
  • increased blood volume
86
Q

How does ADH increase blood volume?

A
  • decrease osmolarity

- increases BP

87
Q

What is the target tissue of ADH?

A
  • major: DCT & collecting duct of kidneys

- minor: vascular smooth m.

88
Q

What is the effect of ADH at the kidney?

A
  • increases water reabsorption by increasing permeability of collecting ducts
89
Q

What is the effect of ADH at the vascular smooth m.?

A
  • mild vasoconstriction to increase BP
90
Q

What is the stimulus for ADH release?

A
  • increased plasma osmolarity (concentration)
  • decreased blood volume (blood pressure)
  • Angiotensin II, indirectly
91
Q

What is the primary control of ADH release?

A
  • increased plasma osmolarity; most sensitive to changes in [blood] levels
92
Q

A 10% change in osmolarity leads to what?

A
  • large ADH release
93
Q

A 10% change in blood vol/ pressure leads to what?

A
  • small ADH release
94
Q

How does angiotensin II indirectly stimulate ADH release?

A
  • renin-angiotensin system synergistically tries to increase blood vol/pressure
95
Q

What does angiotensin II lead to?

A
  • increased sensitivity of osmoreceptors in hypothalamus

- stimulate thirst center in hypothalamus

96
Q

What inhibits ADH release?

A
  • decreased plasma osmolality
  • increased blood vol/pressure
  • ETOH & caffine
97
Q

What are two clinical manifestations of ADH problems?

A
  • diabetes insipidus (DI)

- syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)

98
Q

What is DI?

A
  • diabetes insipidus

- too little of ineffective ADH

99
Q

What are the types of DI?

A
  • central

- nephrogenic

100
Q

Describe central DI

A
  • decreased release of ADH from post pit
101
Q

Describe nephrogenic DI

A
  • inability of the kidneys to respond to ADH
102
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of DI?

A
  • polyuria

- polydipsia

103
Q

Define polyuria

A
  • excessive urine volume (dilute production)
104
Q

Define polydispia

A
  • excessive thirst
105
Q

Define SIADH

A
  • syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion

- elevated ADH secretion results in excessive water reabsorption in kidney

106
Q

Describe the steps of SIADH

A
  • elevated ADH –> excessive H20 reabsorption in kidney –> hypervolemia –> hyponatremia & natiuresis
107
Q

Define hypervolemia

A
  • increase fluid volume which increases pressure
108
Q

Define hyponatremia

A
  • decreased Na in blood stream
109
Q

Define natriuresis

A
  • excessive Na secretion
110
Q

What are the etiologies of SIADH?

A
  • tumor
  • head injuries or meningitis
  • bronchogenic tumors
  • DM
111
Q

Describe the pars distalis

A
  • forms most of the ant pit gland itself
112
Q

Describe the pars tubularis

A
  • thin layer that wraps around the anteriolateral aspect of infundibular stem
113
Q

Describe the pars intermedia

A
  • small layer between pars distalis and tubularis

- disappears in adults

114
Q

What regulates the hormone released from the ant pit?

A
  • hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system
115
Q

What are the major hormones synthesized and released by the ant. pit?

A
  • prolactin
  • GH
  • TSH
  • LH
  • FSH
  • ACTH
  • MSH ( melanocyte stimulating hormone)
116
Q

What is the function of prolactin?

A
  • breast development during puberty and pregnancy
  • stimulates milk production after birth
  • inhibits ovultion
117
Q

What is the target tissue of prolactin?

A
  • mammary glands during puberty, pregnancy, and while lactating
118
Q

What stimulates prolactin release?

A
  • puberty (breast development)
  • pregnancy (breast/duct growth)
  • lactation (milk production)
  • sleep
  • DA antagonist
119
Q

When would a DA antagonist be used?

A
  • induce lactation in adoption
120
Q

What inhibits prolactin release?

A
  • PIF
  • DA agonist
  • discontinuation of stimulus
121
Q

How does PIF inhibit prolactin release?

A
  • negative feedback: elevated prolactin stimulates hypothalamus to increase tonic release of DA
122
Q

How is GH released?

A
  • pulsing/cyclic & circadian rhythm pattern
123
Q

When does GH release peak?

A
  • adolescence
124
Q

What is the function of GH?

A
  • stimulates all tissue growth and maturation
125
Q

What does GH work synergistically with?

A
  • IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor)
126
Q

What is the function of GH working with IGF-1?

A
  • promotes growth of tissues and regulates metabolism to facilitate growth
127
Q

What is the target tissue of GH with direct effect?

A
  • liver
  • muscle
  • adipose
128
Q

What is the target tissue of GH with indirect effect?

129
Q

What is the target tissue of IGF-1?

A
  • bone
  • cartilage
  • visceral organs
130
Q

What is the action of GH in the liver and what type?

A
  • IGF synthesis
  • protein/a.a. synthesis
  • anabolic
131
Q

What is the action of GH in the adipose tissue and what type?

A
  • increase lipolysis
  • decrease glucose uptake (mobilize/maintain glucose for blood stream)
  • metabolic
132
Q

What is the action of GH in the muscle and what type?

A
  • increase a.a. uptake/protein synthesis
  • decrease glucose uptake (mobilize/maintain glucose for blood stream)
  • metabolic
133
Q

What is the action of IGF-1?

A
  • mediates cell growth in most tissues of the body
134
Q

What is IGF-1’s action in the cartilage?

A
  • stimulates cartilage matrix growth/balance

- increase/maintain tissue growth

135
Q

What is IGF-1’s action in the bone?

A
  • facilitate osteoblast/osteoclastic activity
136
Q

What is IGF-2’s effect on tissue growth?

A
  • inhibitory (antagonistic)
137
Q

How are GH and IGF-1 working on metabolic actions?

A
  • GH direct

- IGF-1 indirect

138
Q

What are the metabolic actions of GH/IGF-1?

A
  • protein metabolism
  • carbohydrate metabolism
  • fat metabolism
139
Q

How does GH/IGF-1 affect protein metabolism?

A
  • stimulates a.a. uptake/synthesis

- stimulates protein anabolism in tissues

140
Q

How does GH/IGF-1 affect CHO metabolism?

A
  • assists in maintaining blood glucose levels
  • impairs glucose uptake (opposite insulin)
  • stimulates liver glycogenolysis
141
Q

How does GH/IGF-1 affect fat metabolism?

A
  • increases lipolysis

- decrease glucose uptake into fat cell

142
Q

What balances the actions of IGF-1?

143
Q

Describe the feedback of IGF-1

A
  • inhibits GH release from pit

- stimulates somatostatin (GH inhibiting factor) from hypothalamus

144
Q

What stimulates GH release from ant. pit?

A
  • GHRH from hypothalamus
  • puberty (elevated sex hormones)
  • dietary protein
  • hypoglycemia
  • stage 4 deep sleep
  • exercise
145
Q

How do dietary proteins stimulate GH release?

A
  • increased ingestion of a.a. provide building blocks for growth
146
Q

What inhibits GH release from ant. pit?

A
  • somatostatin
  • glucocorticoids
  • hyperglycemia
  • neg. feedback loops
147
Q

What are two examples of glucocorticoids that will affect GH release?

A
  • Cushing’s syndrome of excessive cortisol

- steroid therapy in children

148
Q

Describe the negative feedback loops on GH release

A
  • elevated GH inhibits GH
  • elevated IGF-1 inhibits GH and stimulates somatostatin
  • excessive androgens
149
Q

What are the hormones that influence growth?

A
  • GH
  • thyroid hormones
  • gonadal steroid hormones
  • insulin
  • cortisol
150
Q

What are clinical pathologies of insufficient GH?

151
Q

What are clinical pathologies of excessive GH?

A
  • gigantism

- acromegaly

152
Q

Which clinical pathology of GH occurs before the epiphyseal plates close? after? both?

A
  • before: dwarfism
  • after: acromegaly
  • both: gigantism
153
Q

Which clinical patholology of GH affects the long and flat bones?

154
Q

Which clinical pathology of GH affects the irregular bones?

A
  • acromegaly
155
Q

What type of changes can long-term excessive GH cause?

A
  • orthopedic
  • i.e. arthopathy, neuopathy, cardiomyopathy/HTN, respiratory disease, CHO intolerance/diabetes, increased risk of malignancy, DECREASED lifespan
156
Q

What is the function of TSH?

A
  • stimulates synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 & T4)
157
Q

What are the gonatdotropin hormones?

158
Q

What is the function of LH in females?

A
  • stimulates ovulation
  • formulation of corpus luteum
  • synthesis of estrogen and progesterone in ovary
159
Q

What is the function of LH in males?

A
  • stimulates synthesis and secretion of testosterone
160
Q

What is the function of FSH in females?

A
  • stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles and estrogen secretion
161
Q

What is the function of FSH in males?

A
  • stimulates sperm maturation in testicles
162
Q

What is the function of ACTH?

A
  • stimulates synthesis and secretion of adrenal cortical hormones
163
Q

What is the function of MSH?

A
  • stimulates melanin synthesis/release from melanocytes

Patho I - Exam #2: Endocrine (4 decks)

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