Module 01: History of Bioethics

Question 1

This is delineated as a part of philosophy that studies free human acts from the point of you of their moral value (goodness or badness) in relation with the last end of man.

Answer 1

Ethics

Question 2

What is the aim of ethics?

Answer 2

With the aim to obtain true and systematic knowledge of upright and authentically human behavior.

Question 3

Ethics is based on what?

Answer 3

Ethics is based on universal principles.

(It is wrong to steal. This is wrong because it goes against justice. Justice is necessary for life in society and development of a good life in the person)

Question 4

Why is justice necessary?

Answer 4

Justice is necessary for life in society and development of a good life in the person. Otherwise, life would be chaos.

Question 5

According to Aristotle, why is ethics a science?

Answer 5

Because ethics is a certain knowledge of causes. It not only aims to just give opinions about the goodness and badness of some act.

It aims to form real judgements about the goodness or badness of an act. And giving reasons for that judgement.

Question 6

This refers to the systematic study of moral principles and values using empirical methods and rational analysis similar to how other sciences investigate natural phenomena.

Answer 6

Ethics as a science

Question 7

Why does “ethics as a science” seeks to establish?

Answer 7

It seeks to establish objective and reasoned conclusions about what constitutes moral behavior, based on evidence, logical consistency, and the underlying causes of ethical decisions.

Question 8

According to Aristotle, what does ethics as a science include?

Answer 8

It involves the pursuit of certain knowledge about the causes of human behavior and moral actions, grounded in the study of virtues and the development of character, to achieve the ultimate goal of eudaimonia.

Question 9

What does eudaimonia mean?

Answer 9

Flourishing or well being

Question 10

This object of ethics pertains to the authentic human acts of people.

Answer 10

Material objects of ethics

Question 11

This object of ethics pertains to the morality of human act or the goodness or badness of a human act.

Answer 11

Formal object of ethics

Question 12

This is known as the inherent goodness found in things according to their nature or purpose (Example: A healthy tree that produces fruit is naturally good because it fulfills its natural purpose. Similarly, a person who functions according to their nature - such as a person who uses reason to seek truth - displays natural goodness.

Answer 12

Natural Goodness

Question 13

When does a person manifest natural goodness or inherent goodness?

Answer 13

A person who functions according to their nature - such as a person who uses reason to seek truth - displays natural goodness.

Question 14

This is known as the effectiveness of an act or the correct technique and skill. This pertains to the goodness of a thing as action in terms of its effectiveness, efficiency, or suitability for achieving a particular end or purpose.

Answer 14

Technical Goodness (Example: A well crafted tool, like a sharp knife, is technically good because it effectively serves it purpose of cutting. A well executed plan or strategy that achieves its goal is also an example of technical goodness.

Question 15

This is known as the ethical quality of an action or the character of a person. It is determined by the alignment of an act with moral principles, such as justice, honesty and love as well as the intention behind the act. This is primarily directed towards to objective good and the final goal of man.

Answer 15

Moral Goodness (Example: Helping someone in need out of genuine compassion is morally good. A person who consistently acts with integrity and kindness demonstrates moral goodness.)

Question 16

This historical code is a figure from ancient Greek mythology religion, widely regarded as the god of medicine and healing.

Answer 16

Asclepius (Asclepio)

Question 17

According to this oath, “…abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous, I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and inlike manner I will not give to a women a pessary to produce abortion.”

Answer 17

Hippocratic Oath (400 BC) “Do no harm”

Question 18

This oath is known as a pledge attributed to the medieval Jewish physician and philosopher Maimonides, in which the doctor commits to selfless dedicating himself to knowledge and skills to the service of humanity, prioritizing the well being of patients and striving for both medical and moral excellence.

Answer 18

Oath of Maimonides

Question 19

This oath is often considered the precursor to modern medical ethics. It is a set of guidelines emphasizing the duties of physicians to prioritize patient welfare, uphold professional integrity and maintain collegiality among medical professionals.

Answer 19

Thomas Percival’s Code

Question 20

What was the turning point of research ethics?

Answer 20

The medical profession had to confront new raised questions, raised directly as a result of extraordinary progress being made in biomedical sciences.

Question 21

What incidents were considered the turning point of research ethics?

Answer 21

(1) Nazi Experiment in the 1940s
(2) Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment in the 1930s to 1970s
(3) Jewish Chronic Disease hospital from 1963 to 1966
(4) Willowbrook Hepatitis Study from 1966
(5) Stanford Prison Experiment from 1971

Question 22

This experiment was conducted on twins to dwell on genetic experiments and freezing experiments (Nuremberg Code).

Answer 22

Nazi Experiment in the 1940s

Question 23

This response to inhumane experiments required institutional review board approval to experiments involving participants. This established a National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1974).

Answer 23

National Research Act of 1974

Question 24

What did the National Research Act of 1974 establish?

Answer 24

This established a National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1974).

Question 25

This is characterized as the main tool that all IRBS should use to evaluate the ethics of research proposals.

Answer 25

Belmont Report (1979)

Question 26

What constitutes the Belmont Report (1979)?

Answer 26

(1) Respect for persons
(2) Beneficence
(3) Justice

Question 27

This is a medical practice of transplanting organs, tissues, or cells between different species, such as from animals and humans. This approach is explored as a potential solution for the shortage of human organs for transplantation and involves significant scientific and ethical considerations.

Answer 27

Xenotransplantation.

Question 28

Xenotransplantation focuses on what?

Answer 28

Focuses on using genetically modified animals to reduce the risk of rejection and other complications associated with such transplants.

Question 29

When was the kidney dialysis machines invented?

Answer 29

1960s

Question 30

When was the organ transplantation from cadavers (kidneys, pancreas, liver and the heart) conducted?

Answer 30

1950s to 1960s

Question 31

Who established the new definition of death?

Answer 31

Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School in 1968

Question 32

How did the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School in 1968 define death?

Answer 32

Defines death as the irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain including the brainstem (known as brain death). This is used as the clinical standard form determining death in the medical practice.

Question 33

When was the discussion of demographic explosion conducted?

Answer 33

1960s

Question 34

When was humane vitae established?

Answer 34

1969

Question 35

Who developed the first contraceptive pill?

Answer 35

Gregory PInkus

Question 36

Why was the first contraceptive pill developed by Gregory Pincus an issue?

Answer 36

Because it revolves around its initial moral ethical objections, particularly from religious and social groups who were concerned about its impact on sexual behavior, population control and women’s health.

Question 36

Who issued to the Humanae Vitae?

Answer 36

Pope Paul IV in 1968, is an encyclical that upholds the Catholic Church’s teaching on the natural law of human procreation, affirming the moral integrity of marital relations and condemning artifical contraceptions

Question 37

When was there a dramatic shift to civil liberties and individual rights?

Answer 37

1960s to the 1970s

Question 38

How did patients demand the principle of respect for autonomy?

Answer 38

(1) Women demanded greater privacy in reproductive decisions
(2) Patients demanded control over their treatment decisions

Question 39

This is a constitutional right to privacy 14’ amendment which is a right broad enough to cover a woman’s decision to continue or terminate her pregnancy. This was established as a woman’s legal right to abortion under the constitution, striking down state laws that restricted access to abortion.

Answer 39

Roe v. Wade (landmark 1973 of the US Supreme Court)

Question 40

When was Roe v. Wade (landmark 1973 of the US Supreme Court) overturned?

Answer 40

June 2022 (this allowed states to set their own abortion laws due to the end of the federal constitutional right)

Question 41

What was the first successful in vitro fertilization procedure?

Answer 41

The birth of Louise Brown (first test tube baby) in July 25, 1978, in the United Kingdom

Question 42

This case involved a severely disabled infant whose parents and doctors decided to withhold medical treatment leading to a legal and ethical debate on the right of life and the decision making authority regarding end of life care for disabled infants.

Answer 42

Baby Doe case in 1982

Question 43

This case was a landmark of the US Supreme Court decision addressing end of life issues by upholding the right of states to require clear and convincing evidence of a patient’s wishes before withdrawing life sustaining from individuals in a persistent vegetative state.

Answer 43

Nancy Cruzan’s Case in 1990

Question 44

What were the adjustments made in pursuit of clinical ethics?

Answer 44

(A) Patient self
(B) Determination Act of 1991
(C) Advance directives and living wills
(D) Right to Die movement
(E) Oregon death with dignity act

Question 45

What are the different ethical positions?

Answer 45

(A) Ethics of care
(B) Virtue ethics
(C) Principle based approach
(D) Cultural relativism
(E) Human dignity
(F) Deontology
(G) Utilitarianism

Question 46

This pertains to the need to be founded in an anthropology that contains the objective truth about man and the nature of the person of his or her truth.

Answer 46

Criteria to Judge our ethical choices (what and who the person is)

Question 47

This is known as the constitutive part of the person who manifests and expresses himself through it.

Answer 47

Corporal body

Question 48

What shouldn’t be done to a man?

Answer 48

(A) The human body cannot be treated as a mere complex of tissues, organs, and functions
(B) Nor can it be evaluated in the same way as the body of animals

Question 49

According to him, bioethics is the revitalized study of medical ethics, its freshness coming not from technology or from novelty of problems but rather from the method with which such themes had to be tackled, diversity of disciplines involved and the pluralistic context of modern society.

Answer 49

Antonio Spagnolo

Question 50

This is known as the division of ethics that relates to human life or the ethics of life sciences and healthcare of both delivery and research.

Answer 50

Bioethics

Question 51

This ethics related to the human health and is also known as the ethics for the health profession.

Answer 51

Health Ethics