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ESA2 Callum's Cards - Complete > MoD S7 - Atheroma > Flashcards

MoD S7 - Atheroma Flashcards

1
Q

Define Atheroma

A

Atheroma is the accumulation of intracellular and extracellular lipid in the intima and media of large and medium sized arteries

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2
Q

Define Atherosclerosis

A

The thickening and hardening of the arterial walls as a consequence of atheroma

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3
Q

Define Arteriosclerosis

A

The thickening of the walls of arteries and arterioles as a result of hypertension or diabetes mellitus

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4
Q

What are the 3 macroscopic features of atheroma?

How do these features reflect atheromatous progression?

A

Fatty streak
Simple plaque
Complicated plaque

Constitute a spectrum of progression from the fatty streak to complicated plaque as atheroma worsens

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5
Q

What is the fatty streak?

A

Lipid deposits in the intima

Appear as a slightly raised yellow streak along the intima

Relationship to atheroma somewhat debated as it is found in regions of the body not prone to atheroma and in populations where atheroma isn’t as prevalent

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6
Q

What are the key features of a simple atheromatous plaque?

A

A raised yellow/white area of the vessel

Irregular outline

Widely distribute

Progressively enlarge and coalesce

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7
Q

What are some complications that can occur as a result of atheromatous plaques being present in an artery?

A

Thrombosis

Haemorrhage into the plague:
- Unstable plaque disrupted by blood flow at high pressure allowing haemorrhage into the vessel wall

Calcification

Aneurysm formation:
- As atheroma becomes more extensive in the tunica media the elastic tissue is affected and number of elastic fibres is reduced, aneurysm forms via stretching of the vessel wall

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8
Q

What sites in the vasculature are particularly affected by atheroma?

What about other sites in the vasculature?

Why are these sites in particular vulnerable?

A 
Aorta
Coronary arteries
Carotid arteries
Cerebral arteries
Leg arteries

Other sites in the body are less likely to develop plaques

Not known why these sites are particularly effected

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9
Q

What are the early microscopic changes seen in someone developing atheroma?

A

Proliferation of smooth muscle cells

Accumulation of foam cells (macrophages and smooth muscle cells with cytoplasmic lipid accumulation)

Extracellular lipid in the wall of the artery

Abnormalities in the composition of the extracellular matrix

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10
Q

What are the later microscopic changes seen in someone with atheroma?

A

Fibrosis (dense fibrotic caps on plaques)

Necrosis

Cholesterol clefts:
- Cholesterol crystallises and forms needle shaped crystals, these are dissolved in histological preparation and we see the ‘cleft’ left behind

Inflammatory cells:
- Widely varies, may influence stability, likelihood of thrombosis and aneurysm formation

Disruption of internal elastic lamina

Damage extends to media

Ingrowth of blood vessels into the plaque (new ‘leaky’ capillaries, may contribute to haemorrhage into plaque)

Plaque fissuring (due to sheering forces of blood against an unstable plaque)

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11
Q

What are some of the primary effects of atheroma?

A 
Ischaemic heart disease
Cerebral ischaemia
Mesenteric ischaemia
Peripheral vascular disease
Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA)
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12
Q

List some of the conditions that may be a result of ischaemic heart disease due to atheroma

A 
Sudden death
Myocardial infarction
Angina pectoris
Arrhythmias
Cardiac failure
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13
Q

What are some of the conditions that may be a result of cerebral ischaemia due to atheroma?

A

Transient ischaemia attach
Cerebral infarction
Multi-infarct dementia (multiple small infarcts that affect cognitive function leading to dementia)

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14
Q

What are some of the conditions that result from mesenteric ischaemia due to atheroma?

A

Ischaemic colitis (chronic, leads to abdominal pain/bleeding)
Malabsorption
Intestinal infarction

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15
Q

What are some of the conditions that result from peripheral vascular disease due to atheroma?

A

Intermittent claudication (pain in calves on walking)

Leriche syndrome (pain in buttocks, impotence due to atheroma of the iliac artery)

Ischaemic rest pain

Gangrene

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16
Q

What are some of the risk factors for atheroma?

A 
Age
Gender
Hyperlipidaemia
Cigarette smoking
Hypertension
Diabetes mellitus
Alcohol
Infection
Lack of exercise
Obesity
Oral contraceptives
Stress
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17
Q

What are the gender differences in risk of atheroma developing?

A

Affects men more than women

Women relatively pretected before menopause, assumed hormonal basis

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18
Q

Why is hyperlipidaemia associated with atheroma?

A

High plasma cholesterol associated with atheroma
LDL most significant
HDL is protective

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19
Q

How is hypertension related to atheroma?

A

There is a strong link between high BP and Ischaemic heart disease

Endothelial damage may be caused by high BP

20
Q

How is diabetes mellitus related to atheroma?

A

Diabetes mellitus doubles ischaemic heart disease risk

Also associated with cerebrovascular and peripheral vascular disease

May also be related to hyperlipidaemia and hypertension, raising risk of atheroma further

21
Q

At what level of alcohol consumption does risk of atheroma increase?

A

> 5 units per day increases risk of IHD and atheroma

Smaller amounts may be protective

22
Q

Give 3 examples of infection that may increase risk of atheroma

A

Chlamydia
Helicobacter pylori
Cytomegalovirus

This association is mostly theoretical at this point, no conclusive evidence

23
Q

How is cigarette smoking related to atheroma?

A

Powerful risk factor for IHD

Risk falls after giving up

Mode of action uncertain:

  • May work via the coagulation system
  • May cause reduced prostacyclin
  • Hence causing increased platelet aggregation
  • This may lead to atherogenesis (We’re not sure)
24
Q

What are some genetic factors that may predispose to atheroma development?

A

Variations in apolipoprotein metabolism
(E.g. Familial hyperlipidaemia)

Variations in apolipoprotein receptors

25
Q

How is apolipoprotein E related to atheroma development?

A

Genetic variations in Apo E are associated with changes in LDL levels

Polymorphisms of the genes involved lead to at least 6 phenotypes

These phenotypes can be used as risk markers for atheroma

26
Q

What is familial hyperlipidaemia?

What are some of the associated physical signs?

A

Genetically determined abnormalities of lipoproteins

These lead to early development of atheroma

Associated physical signs include:
- Corneal Arcus (ring around the cornea)

  • Tendon xanthomas (cholesterol rich lipid deposition in tendons)
  • Xanthelasma (raised deposits of fat around the eyes/eyelids)
27
Q

What are the 4 theories of atheroma pathogenesis?

How are they all related?

A

Thrombogenic theory

Insudation theory

Monoclonal hypothesis

Reaction to injury hypothesis

Can be collected to form the ‘Unified theory’

28
Q

Describe the Thrombogenic theory and Insudation theory of atheroma pathogenesis

A

Thrombogenic:

  • Plaques formed by repeated thrombi sticking to the arterial wall
  • Then somehow becoming associated with lipid
  • A cap then forms over the thrombus
  • This is repeated over and over as the plaques grow

Insudation:

  • Some method of endothelial injury
  • This leads to inflammation
  • This increases the permeability of the vessel wall to lipids allowing lipids into the vessel wall from the plasma
29
Q

Describe the Reaction to injury hypothesis of atheroma pathogenesis

A

Plaques form in response to endothelial injury

Hyperlipidaemia leads to the endothelial damage

Injury increases permeability and allows platelet adhesion

Monocytes penetrate into endothelium and become foam cells

Smooth muscle cells proliferate and migrate

Later suggested that:

  • Endothelial injury was so subtle as to be undetectable visually
  • Oxidised LDL may be what is damaging the endothelium
30
Q

Describe the monoclonal hypothesis of atheroma pathogenesis

A

Smooth muscle cell proliferation is crucial

Each plaque is monoclonal

Each plaque might therefore represent a benign tumour due to abnormal growth control

Also a viral aetiology suggested

31
Q

What are the major processes involved in atheroma?

A

Thrombosis
Lipid accumulation
Production of intercellular matrix
Interactions between cell types

32
Q

What are the different cell types involved in atheroma?

A 
Endothelial cells
Platelets
Smooth muscle cells
Macrophages
Lymphocytes
Neutrophils
33
Q

How are endothelial cells involved in atheroma?

A

Key role in haemostasis (pro and anti coagulant effects)

Their permeability to lipoproteins is altered

They secrete collagen (major structural protein in the plaques, may be abnormal in atheroma)

Stimulate the proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells

34
Q

How are platelets involved in atheroma?

A

Key role in haemostasis

Stimulation of proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells via platelet derived growth factor

35
Q

How are smooth muscle cells involved in atheroma?

A

Proliferate and migrate

Take up LDL and other lipids and become foam cells

Synthesise collagen and proteoglycans (for the intercellular matrix that may be abnormal in atheroma)

36
Q

How are macrophages involved in atheroma?

A

Oxidise LDL

Take up lipids and become foam cells

Secrete proteases which modify matrix (can have an effect on plaque stability/rupture/fissure)

Stimulate the proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells

37
Q

How are lymphocytes involved in atheroma?

A

Produce TNF that may affect lipoprotein metabolism

Stimulate proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells

38
Q

How are neutrophils involved in atheroma?

A

Secrete proteases leading to continued local damage and inflammation, which then in turn may lead to atheroma

Proteases can also modify the proteins of the intercellular matrix affecting the stability of the plaque (more likely to rupture/fissure)

39
Q

Describe the unified hypothesis of atheroma pathogenesis

A

Subtle endothelial injury due to:

  • Raised LDL
  • Toxins (E.g. Cigarette smoke)
  • Hypertension
  • Haemodynamic stress

This injury leads to:

  • Platelet adhesion, platelet derived growth factor release and subsequent smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration
  • Insudation of lipid, LDL oxidation, uptake of lipid by smooth muscle cells and macrophages
  • Migration of monocytes into intima

Stimulated smooth muscle cells then produce matrix material

Foam cells secrete cytokines causing:

  • Further smooth muscle cell stimulation
  • Recruitment of other inflammatory cells
40
Q

How can atheroma development be prevented?

A 
No smoking
Reduce fat intake
Treat hypertension
Limit alcohol
Regular exercise/weight control

However some people will still develop atheroma even if they adhere to all these points

41
Q

How can atheroma be controlled once it has appeared?

A 
Stop smoking
Modify diet
Treating hypertension (if present)
Treating diabetes (if present)
Lipid lowering drugs (statins)
42
Q

What dietary factors may influence the development of atherosclerosis?

A

Unsaturated fats that will raise levels of LDL in the blood are going to increase the chance of developing atherosclerosis if eaten in excess

43
Q

What dietary advice might a physician give to a patient at risk of atherosclerosis?

A

Reduce unsaturated fat intake

Eat a balanced diet, include more fruits and vegetables, lean protein sources

Limit cholesterol intake

Limit total fat and calorie intake

Reduce salt intake

44
Q

What factors increase susceptibility to coronary heart disease?

A

Genetic (E.g. Familial hypercholesterolaemia)
Geographical - Less common in the mediterranean (diet)
Ethnicity - CHD more common in Asians

45
Q

What are the risk factors for coronary heart disease?

A 
Smoking
Gender (More prevalent in males)
Hypertension (increased endothelial damage)
Diabetes mellitus (increased IHD risk)
Alcohol (>5 units/day)
Infection (E.g. helicobacter pylori)

ESA2 Callum's Cards - Complete (36 decks)

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