MoD lectures 17-22 Cancer Flashcards
define involution
the physiological atrophy by apoptosis/ the shrinking of an organ in old age or when inactive
define apoptosis
programmed cell death
define hypoplasia
under or incomplete development of a tissue or organ
define agenesis
failure of an organ to develop during embryonic growth
define dysplasia
the enlargement of an organ or tissue by the proliferation of cells of an abnormal type
define hypertrophy
increase in size of cells
define hyperplasia
increase in number of cells
define gynaecomastia
enlargement of the male breast due to hyperplasia of the glandular and stromal tissue
define atrophy
reduction in the size of organ or tissue by decrease in cell size and number
define metaplasia
transformation of one differentiated cell type into another
define neoplasia
the presence or formation of new, abnormal growth of tissue
What is adaptations?
reversible changes in cellular size, number, phenotype, metabolic activity or function due to changes in environment or demand
How does uncontrolled hyperplasia occur in Graves’ disease?
an autoantibody binds to and switches on the TSH receptor in the thyroid, leading to prolonged, uncontrolled hyperplasia of the thyroid and hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis)
define aplasia
failure of differentiation to organ-specific tissues
define dysgenesis
failure of structural organization of tissues into organ
What is another name for severe dysplasia?
carcinoma in situ
What is the difference between malignant and benign tumours in:
a) differentiation
b) rate of growth
c) local invasion
d) metastasis
a) benign is well-defferentiated and malignant is variable
b) both are variable but benign is slow and malignant rapid
c) benign no and malignant yes
d) benign no and malignant yes
define cancer
the uncontrolled growth of cells, which can invade and spread to distant sites of the body
define neoplasm
lesion resulting from the autonomous growth or relatively autonomous abnormal growth of cells that persists in the absence of the initiating stimulus , interchangeable with tumour
define histiogenesis
the differentiation of cells into specialized tissues and organs during growth from undifferentiated cells (the 3 primary germ layers)
define anaplasia
neoplasms compromised poorly-differentiated cells are described as anaplastic, do not resemble tissue of origin
What are the 4 types of differentiation?
- well differentiated- closely resembles tissue of origin
- moderately differentiated- somewhere inbetween
- poorly differentiated- littel resembalance to tissue of origin
- undifferentiated/anaplastic: cannot be identified by morphology alone
What are the corresponding grades to the levels of differentiation?
well: low grade/ grade 1
moderately: intermediate/ grade 2
poorly: high grade/ grade 3
What types of tumours express foetal proteins not seen in adults?
germ cell and liver tumours
What are the 3 pathways of metastasis?
direct seeding
lymphatic spread
heamatogenous spread
Which nodes do breast carcinomas most commonly go to?
first to axillary nodes the infraclavicular and supraclavicular nodes
What are sentinel nodes and how are they identified?
the first node in a regional lymphatic basic (axillary in breast) that receives lymph flow from the primary tumour
identified by injection of radiolabelled tracers/coloured dyes`
define stroma
connective tissue framework that neoplastic cells are embedded in. It provides mechanical support, intracellular signalling and nutrition for the tumour
What is a desmoplastic reaction?
fibrous stroma formation due to induction of connective tissue fibroblast proliferation by growth factors from the tumour cells
What does stroma contain?
- cancer-associated fibroblasts
- myofibroblats
- blood vessels
- lymphocytic infiltrate
What are local clinical complication of tumours due to?
compression and destruction (in malignancy)
What are non-specific metabolic clinical complication of tumours?
cachexia (interference with protein metabolism) warburg effect neuropathies myopathies venous thrombosis
What is the warburg effect?
energy produced by high rate of glycolysis with fermentation of lactic acid
What imaging is the warburg effect important for?
PET scans
What are para-neoplastic syndromes?
a syndrome that is the consequence of cancer in the body but that, unlike mass effect, is not due to the local presence of cancer cells
it is an example of tumour-type specific metabolic clinical complications of tumours
What is a benign tumour of surface epithelium called?
papilloma
What is a benign tumour of glandular epithelium called?
adenoma
What are malignant epithelial tumours called?
carcinoma
What are malignant epithelial tumours from glandular/ductal epithelium called?
adenocarcinoma
What is the suffix for all benign mesenchymal tumours?
oma
What are malignant mesenchymal tumours called?
sarcoma
What is the name for a benign tumour of melanocytes?
melanocytic neus
What is the name for a malignant tumour of melanocytes?
melanoma
What are some malignant tumours of blood cells?
leukaemia, lymphoma, myeloma
What do CNS tumours end in?
-oma
What are seminomatous tumours called?
seminoma
What are non-seminomatous germ cell tumours called?
teratoma
What are embryonal tumours called?
blastoma
What is the difference between a hamartoma and a choristoma?
hamartoma: non-neoplastic overgrowth of tissue
choristoma: nodules of organ tissue in anothes organ
What is a carcinogen?
any agent that significantly increases the risk of developing cancer
What is an initiator?
genotoxic carcinogens that can chemically modify or damage DNA
What is a promoter?
a non-genotoxic carcinogen that induces proliferation of cells and DNA replication
How many mutations are required to transform a normal cell into a malignant one?
2-8 driver mutations
Where is the philedelphia chromosome and what condition is it associated with?
chronic myeloid leukaemia
chr9:22
What do methylated CpG islands do?
switch off genes that are not required, the closed chomatin closes up the gene and stops it from being expressed
What can affect the tumour suppression gene causing cancer?
if the mechanisms controlling the methylation of the genome malfunction and causing random CpG islands to methylate switching off TSG’s
What do mutations in oncogenes cause?
gain of function
What do mutation in TSGs cause?
loss of function
What are procarcinogens?
carcinogens that are not mutagenic when they enter the cells but are toxic and require activation by enzymes
What is an example of a procarciogen and where is it found?
benzopyrene
meat, tobacco and fuel
it caused a GC –> TA transversion
How does oestrogen play a role in breast cancer?
it stimulates proliferation by biding to transcription factors
it can also be converted into something which can damage DNA
What are caretaker genes?
TSGs that maintain genetic stability by repairing damaged DNA and replication errors
What do gatekeeper TSGs do?
have an important role in regulating normal growth:
negative regulators of the cell cycle and proliferation
positive regulators of apoptosis
positive regulators of cell differentiation
What do caretaker TSGs do?
maintain genetic stability
DNA repair geens and controlling accuracy of mitosis
What is aneuploidy?
an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell
