MoD lectures 17-22 Cancer

Question 1

define involution

Answer 1

the physiological atrophy by apoptosis/ the shrinking of an organ in old age or when inactive

Question 2

define apoptosis

Answer 2

programmed cell death

Question 3

define hypoplasia

Answer 3

under or incomplete development of a tissue or organ

Question 4

define agenesis

Answer 4

failure of an organ to develop during embryonic growth

Question 5

define dysplasia

Answer 5

the enlargement of an organ or tissue by the proliferation of cells of an abnormal type

Question 6

define hypertrophy

Answer 6

increase in size of cells

Question 7

define hyperplasia

Answer 7

increase in number of cells

Question 8

define gynaecomastia

Answer 8

enlargement of the male breast due to hyperplasia of the glandular and stromal tissue

Question 9

define atrophy

Answer 9

reduction in the size of organ or tissue by decrease in cell size and number

Question 10

define metaplasia

Answer 10

transformation of one differentiated cell type into another

Question 11

define neoplasia

Answer 11

the presence or formation of new, abnormal growth of tissue

Question 12

What is adaptations?

Answer 12

reversible changes in cellular size, number, phenotype, metabolic activity or function due to changes in environment or demand

Question 13

How does uncontrolled hyperplasia occur in Graves’ disease?

Answer 13

an autoantibody binds to and switches on the TSH receptor in the thyroid, leading to prolonged, uncontrolled hyperplasia of the thyroid and hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis)

Question 14

define aplasia

Answer 14

failure of differentiation to organ-specific tissues

Question 15

define dysgenesis

Answer 15

failure of structural organization of tissues into organ

Question 16

What is another name for severe dysplasia?

Answer 16

carcinoma in situ

Question 17

What is the difference between malignant and benign tumours in:

a) differentiation
b) rate of growth
c) local invasion
d) metastasis

Answer 17

a) benign is well-defferentiated and malignant is variable
b) both are variable but benign is slow and malignant rapid
c) benign no and malignant yes
d) benign no and malignant yes

Question 18

define cancer

Answer 18

the uncontrolled growth of cells, which can invade and spread to distant sites of the body

Question 19

define neoplasm

Answer 19

lesion resulting from the autonomous growth or relatively autonomous abnormal growth of cells that persists in the absence of the initiating stimulus , interchangeable with tumour

Question 20

define histiogenesis

Answer 20

the differentiation of cells into specialized tissues and organs during growth from undifferentiated cells (the 3 primary germ layers)

Question 21

define anaplasia

Answer 21

neoplasms compromised poorly-differentiated cells are described as anaplastic, do not resemble tissue of origin

Question 22

What are the 4 types of differentiation?

Answer 22

1. well differentiated- closely resembles tissue of origin
2. moderately differentiated- somewhere inbetween
3. poorly differentiated- littel resembalance to tissue of origin
4. undifferentiated/anaplastic: cannot be identified by morphology alone

Question 23

What are the corresponding grades to the levels of differentiation?

Answer 23

well: low grade/ grade 1
moderately: intermediate/ grade 2
poorly: high grade/ grade 3

Question 24

What types of tumours express foetal proteins not seen in adults?

Answer 24

germ cell and liver tumours

Question 25

What are the 3 pathways of metastasis?

Answer 25

direct seeding lymphatic spread heamatogenous spread

Question 26

Which nodes do breast carcinomas most commonly go to?

Answer 26

first to axillary nodes the infraclavicular and supraclavicular nodes

Question 27

What are sentinel nodes and how are they identified?

Answer 27

the first node in a regional lymphatic basic (axillary in breast) that receives lymph flow from the primary tumour identified by injection of radiolabelled tracers/coloured dyes`

Question 28

define stroma

Answer 28

connective tissue framework that neoplastic cells are embedded in. It provides mechanical support, intracellular signalling and nutrition for the tumour

Question 29

What is a desmoplastic reaction?

Answer 29

fibrous stroma formation due to induction of connective tissue fibroblast proliferation by growth factors from the tumour cells

Question 30

What does stroma contain?

Answer 30

- cancer-associated fibroblasts - myofibroblats - blood vessels - lymphocytic infiltrate

Question 31

What are local clinical complication of tumours due to?

Answer 31

compression and destruction (in malignancy)

Question 32

What are non-specific metabolic clinical complication of tumours?

Answer 32

``` cachexia (interference with protein metabolism) warburg effect neuropathies myopathies venous thrombosis ```

Question 33

What is the warburg effect?

Answer 33

energy produced by high rate of glycolysis with fermentation of lactic acid

Question 34

What imaging is the warburg effect important for?

Answer 34

PET scans

Question 35

What are para-neoplastic syndromes?

Answer 35

a syndrome that is the consequence of cancer in the body but that, unlike mass effect, is not due to the local presence of cancer cells it is an example of tumour-type specific metabolic clinical complications of tumours

Question 36

What is a benign tumour of surface epithelium called?

Answer 36

papilloma

Question 37

What is a benign tumour of glandular epithelium called?

Answer 37

adenoma

Question 38

What are malignant epithelial tumours called?

Answer 38

carcinoma

Question 39

What are malignant epithelial tumours from glandular/ductal epithelium called?

Answer 39

adenocarcinoma

Question 40

What is the suffix for all benign mesenchymal tumours?

Answer 40

oma

Question 41

What are malignant mesenchymal tumours called?

Answer 41

sarcoma

Question 42

What is the name for a benign tumour of melanocytes?

Answer 42

melanocytic neus

Question 43

What is the name for a malignant tumour of melanocytes?

Answer 43

melanoma

Question 44

What are some malignant tumours of blood cells?

Answer 44

leukaemia, lymphoma, myeloma

Question 45

What do CNS tumours end in?

Answer 45

-oma

Question 46

What are seminomatous tumours called?

Answer 46

seminoma

Question 47

What are non-seminomatous germ cell tumours called?

Answer 47

teratoma

Question 48

What are embryonal tumours called?

Answer 48

blastoma

Question 49

What is the difference between a hamartoma and a choristoma?

Answer 49

hamartoma: non-neoplastic overgrowth of tissue choristoma: nodules of organ tissue in anothes organ

Question 50

What is a carcinogen?

Answer 50

any agent that significantly increases the risk of developing cancer

Question 51

What is an initiator?

Answer 51

genotoxic carcinogens that can chemically modify or damage DNA

Question 52

What is a promoter?

Answer 52

a non-genotoxic carcinogen that induces proliferation of cells and DNA replication

Question 53

How many mutations are required to transform a normal cell into a malignant one?

Answer 53

2-8 driver mutations

Question 54

Where is the philedelphia chromosome and what condition is it associated with?

Answer 54

chronic myeloid leukaemia | chr9:22

Question 55

What do methylated CpG islands do?

Answer 55

switch off genes that are not required, the closed chomatin closes up the gene and stops it from being expressed

Question 56

What can affect the tumour suppression gene causing cancer?

Answer 56

if the mechanisms controlling the methylation of the genome malfunction and causing random CpG islands to methylate switching off TSG's

Question 57

What do mutations in oncogenes cause?

Answer 57

gain of function

Question 58

What do mutation in TSGs cause?

Answer 58

loss of function

Question 59

What are procarcinogens?

Answer 59

carcinogens that are not mutagenic when they enter the cells but are toxic and require activation by enzymes

Question 60

What is an example of a procarciogen and where is it found?

Answer 60

benzopyrene meat, tobacco and fuel it caused a GC --> TA transversion

Question 61

How does oestrogen play a role in breast cancer?

Answer 61

it stimulates proliferation by biding to transcription factors it can also be converted into something which can damage DNA

Question 62

What are caretaker genes?

Answer 62

TSGs that maintain genetic stability by repairing damaged DNA and replication errors

Question 63

What do gatekeeper TSGs do?

Answer 63

have an important role in regulating normal growth: negative regulators of the cell cycle and proliferation positive regulators of apoptosis positive regulators of cell differentiation

Question 64

What do caretaker TSGs do?

Answer 64

maintain genetic stability | DNA repair geens and controlling accuracy of mitosis

Question 65

What is aneuploidy?

Answer 65

an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell