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Mod 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

Define disease.

A

Any process or condition that adversely affects the normal functioning of a living thing or parts of a living thing. It is a state of impaired functioning, poor health.

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2
Q

Define infectious disease.

A

Caused by a pathogen and able to be transmitted from one individual to another.

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3
Q

Define non-infectious disease.

A

Often known as a disorder; can only be transmitted via genetic inheritance, caused by environmental factors or genetics, with no pathogen involvement.

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4
Q

Define pathogen.

A

Organisms or biogenic molecules that cause disease, also known as infectious agents.

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5
Q

What is pathogenicity?

A

The ability of a pathogen to cause disease.

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6
Q

Give examples of living and nonliving pathogens.

A

Living: bacteria, fungi, parasites, protozoans; Nonliving: viruses, prions.

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7
Q

What is communicable disease?

A

Diseases that can be transmitted from organism to organism.

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8
Q

What is endemic?

A

Level of a particular disease is steady.

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9
Q

What is epidemic?

A

Sudden spike in the prevalence of an infectious disease within the population of a region/community.

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10
Q

What is pandemic?

A

Sudden spike in a disease across the entire world.

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11
Q

What is epizootic?

A

Epidemics amongst animals in a particular region.

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12
Q

What are the three requirements for a disease to occur?

A

There must be a pathogen, a host, and a favorable environment for the pathogen to reproduce.

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13
Q

What is the host in relation to infectious diseases?

A

An organism susceptible to a disease.

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14
Q

What is interpersonal variation in disease resistance?

A

A healthy person might resist an infection that is devastating to someone whose immune system works poorly.

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15
Q

What is personal variation in disease resistance?

A

People under stress may succumb to an infection they might resist at another time.

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16
Q

What does ineffective dose mean?

A

An ineffective dose is one that is insufficient in quality to cause disease.

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17
Q

What is the effect of pathogens on the host?

A

Most pathogens stimulate defensive reactions in the host, such as increased white blood cell production, often accompanied by fever and tiredness.

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18
Q

How does the environment affect pathogen transmission?

A

The nature of the environment affects the likelihood of a pathogen growing and being passed from one host to another.

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19
Q

What is COVID-19 caused by?

A

COVID-19 is caused by infection with a coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2.

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20
Q

What are the symptoms of COVID-19?

A

Fever, chills, cough, shortness of breath, fatigue, muscle aches, headache.

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21
Q

How is COVID-19 transmitted?

A

Spread through direct contact or indirect contact with contaminated objects or surfaces, and can be contagious before symptoms start.

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22
Q

What management strategies were implemented for COVID-19 outbreaks?

A

Lockdowns, social distancing, quarantine, mandatory testing, and monitoring of cases.

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23
Q

What are some future control measures for outbreaks?

A

Development of vaccinations.

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24
Q

Define transmission of diseases.

A

The spread of a pathogen from an infected individual to another susceptible individual.

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25
Q

What is a vector in disease transmission?

A

Carries a pathogen and transmits it.

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26
Q

What is the chain of infection?

A

Host susceptible to the disease, pathogen capable of causing the disease, mode of transmission.

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27
Q

What are active and passive carriers of disease?

A

Humans can act as active or passive carriers of a disease.

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28
Q

What is direct transmission?

A

Physical contact between the host and the non-infected organism via exposure of infected skin or body secretions.

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29
Q

What is vertical transmission?

A

From mother to offspring (placenta, vaginal birth, breastfeeding).

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30
Q

What is horizontal transmission?

A

From one individual to another (not parent and child).

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31
Q

Give examples of direct transmission methods.

A

Touching, biting, sexual contact, contact with secretions, direct contact with blood or body fluids.

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32
Q

Give examples of indirect transmission methods.

A

Coughing, touching infected surfaces, contaminated food/water, vectors such as mosquitoes.

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33
Q

What is vector transmission?

A

A special case of indirect contact where another organism carries the pathogen from one host to another.

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34
Q

What are Koch’s postulates?

A

The microorganism should be found in all organisms suffering from the disease but not found in healthy organisms; must be isolated and grown in pure culture; must cause the same disease when injected into a healthy organism; must be reisolated and identified.

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35
Q

What did Robert Koch discover?

A

He discovered that a specific bacterium causes anthrax and developed Koch’s postulates.

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36
Q

What is pasteurization?

A

The process of heating food to kill pathogens and then letting it cool.

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37
Q

What role does agriculture play in infectious diseases?

A

It involves the cultivation of crops and rearing of animals for human products.

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38
Q

What is an exotic disease?

A

Infectious diseases that normally do not occur in the region due to never being present or eradicated.

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39
Q

What is an endemic disease?

A

Diseases present within a country or region.

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40
Q

What factors contribute to infectious diseases in agriculture?

A

Host factors, pathogen factors, environmental factors.

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41
Q

What are some causes of infectious disease in plants?

A

Plants are commonly attacked by pathogens, and if conditions are not optimal, pathogens can enter easily.

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42
Q

What abiotic factors can affect plant disease?

A

Temperature, light, chemical agents, water quality, nutrient availability.

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43
Q

What effects do plant diseases have on agriculture?

A

Reduced yields, loss of trading opportunities, economic loss for farmers.

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44
Q

Give an example of a plant disease and its effects.

A

Panama disease caused by Fusarium Oxysporum results in yellowing and wilting of leaves, damaging the plant.

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45
Q

What types of pathogens impact agricultural animals?

A

Bacteria and viruses impact agricultural animals, similar to human diseases.

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46
Q

What are the control methods for exotic animal diseases?

A

Control methods include vaccination programs, rapid quarantine, and culling infected animals.

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47
Q

Give an example of an animal disease and its effects.

A

Bird Flu, which can cross-infect humans with a high fatality rate.

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48
Q

What are some other causes/effects of infectious diseases?

A

Changing land use can spread diseases; pesticide resistance increases disease transmission risk; loss of genetic diversity increases susceptibility to disease.

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49
Q

What adaptations must a pathogen have to cause disease?

A

Pathogens must enter the host, multiply in tissues, resist host defenses, and damage the host.

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50
Q

What transmission methods do bacteria use?

A

Transmission may occur through close contact or indirectly through contaminated objects.

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51
Q

What adaptations do bacteria have for entry and transmission?

A

Many have pili and fimbria for adhesion, produce proteins to be engulfed, and toxins to fight off immune cells.

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52
Q

What transmission methods do fungi use?

A

Occurs through close contact or contaminated objects; fungi form spores for survival.

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53
Q

What adaptations do fungi have for entry and transmission?

A

Molecules in the cell wall help fungi adhere to host cells and they can survive without a host.

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54
Q

What transmission methods do protozoans use?

A

Uses insect vectors for entry; transmission occurs via bites or contaminated water.

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55
Q

What adaptations do protozoans have for entry and transmission?

A

Creates a lipid membrane for protection and enters privileged sites to overwhelm the immune system.

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56
Q

What transmission methods do macroparasites use?

A

Transmission occurs directly or through ingestion of eggs; ectoparasites require close contact.

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57
Q

What adaptations do macroparasites have for entry and transmission?

A

Secrete immunomodulatory proteins and can change host behavior for transmission.

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58
Q

What transmission methods do viruses use?

A

Enveloped viruses enter via endocytosis, non-enveloped attach to host cells to replicate.

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59
Q

What adaptations do viruses have for entry and transmission?

A

Can change antigens, spread through various vectors, and impact host behavior to induce coughing/sneezing.

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60
Q

What are prions and how can they be contracted?

A

Prions alter normal proteins upon contact; can be contracted via ingestion, surgery, transplants, or inheritance.

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61
Q

What adaptations do prions have for entry and transmission?

A

Able to travel through nerves, may piggyback on other proteins.

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62
Q

What are antigen-presenting cells (APCs)?

A

Cells that display antigens bound by MHC and present them to T-cells.

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63
Q

What is the plant’s response to pathogens?

A

Plants use physical barriers like bark and waxy cuticles and produce toxic compounds when pathogens breach these barriers.

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64
Q

What are Passive Defence Mechanisms?

A

They are barriers that exist before pathogen contact, requiring no energy from the plant to function.

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65
Q

What are Active Defence Mechanisms?

A

Targeted responses activated after pathogen recognition, involving chemical barriers that activate when passive barriers are breached.

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66
Q

What do physical barriers do?

A

They prevent movement or contact with pathogens.

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67
Q

What do chemical barriers do?

A

They interfere with microbes by breaking them down or inactivating them.

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68
Q

What is the 1st Line of Defence?

A

Passive barriers that physically and chemically prevent pathogen entry.

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69
Q

Give examples of physical barriers in plants.

A

Cell walls containing lignin and cellulose, waxy epidermal cuticles, bark, and stomata (which can close).

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70
Q

Give examples of chemical barriers in plants.

A

Antifungal and antimicrobial compounds, enzymes that break down pathogen toxins, saponins, and defensins.

71
Q

What is the 2nd Line of Defence in plants?

A

The innate immune response, including PAMPs and other chemical responses activated by pathogen recognition.

72
Q

What are Pathogen-Associated-Molecular-Patterns (PAMPs)?

A

Chemical receptors on plants that detect the presence of a pathogen and activate the next stage of defence.

73
Q

What happens when a pathogen is detected?

A

The plant thickens cell walls, closes stomata, cuts off infected cells, and sends chemical signals to trigger defences in unaffected cells.

74
Q

What is Gene for Gene Resistance?

A

Resistance genes in some plants produce proteins that disable specific pathogens in response to entry.

75
Q

What is Basal Resistance?

A

An unsuccessful plant defence response that involves shutting gaps between cells to limit pathogen spread.

76
Q

What is the Hypersensitive Response?

A

Activated if basal resistance fails, producing oxidative agents that trap pathogens inside host cells, leading to apoptosis.

77
Q

What is the Systemic Acquired Response?

A

A non-specific, whole-plant response after localized pathogen exposure that prepares other tissues for potential pathogens.

78
Q

Describe the interaction between Eucalyptus trees and water mould.

A

Water moulds damage Eucalyptus roots, but marri gum trees show resistance through increased lignin development.

79
Q

What does Myrtle Rust cause in Eucalyptus?

A

Deformed leaves, defoliation, reduced fertility, stunted growth, and plant death, primarily affecting new growth.

80
Q

How does the fungal pathogen penetrate plant tissue?

A

It forms haustoria that extract nutrients, and the plant responds by killing surrounding cells to cut off the fungus’s nutrient supply.

81
Q

What is Banana Bunch Disease?

A

It prevents fruit production and causes yellowing and stunted leaf growth, transmitted via infected aphids.

82
Q

What is the 1st Line of Defence in humans?

A

Non-specific physical and chemical barriers that protect against pathogen entry.

83
Q

Give examples of physical barriers in humans.

A

Skin, mucous membranes, cilia, vomiting, and diarrhea.

84
Q

Give examples of chemical barriers in humans.

A

Stomach acid, alkaline intestines, microbiome, and body secretions like urine and saliva.

85
Q

What happens if the 1st Line of Defence fails in humans?

A

The innate immune response takes over, which is non-specific and not improved with re-exposure.

86
Q

What is an Antigen?

A

Molecules that the host recognizes as foreign, triggering an immune response.

87
Q

What are Exogenous and Endogenous antigens?

A

Exogenous are found on invading pathogens; endogenous are produced by pathogens within the host.

88
Q

What is an Antibody?

A

A protein produced by the immune system that attacks specific antigens and forms antigen-antibody complexes.

89
Q

What is Phagocytosis?

A

The process by which white blood cells engulf and destroy pathogen microbes.

90
Q

What is the role of Neutrophils?

A

They are the first responders to acute inflammation.

91
Q

What is the role of Macrophages?

A

They act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and are involved in chronic inflammation.

92
Q

What is the Inflammatory Response?

A

It is triggered by tissue injury, causing increased blood flow, swelling, and attracting white blood cells.

93
Q

What are Mast cells?

A

Cells that release histamines during the inflammatory response.

94
Q

What do lysosomes do in the innate immune response?

A

They directly attack bacterial antigens by breaking down their cell walls.

95
Q

What are Natural Killer Cells?

A

Specialized white blood cells that recognize and signal infected body cells to stop replicating.

96
Q

What is the role of the lymphatic system?

A

It filters and returns intercellular fluid to the blood and traps antigens for lymphocytes to bind.

97
Q

What is the Complement System?

A

A group of proteins that assists in destroying extracellular pathogens and stimulating phagocyte activity.

98
Q

What is the 3rd Line of Defence in the immune response?

A

The adaptive immune response that targets specific pathogens and improves upon re-exposure.

99
Q

What is the role of T cells?

A

They recognize specific antigens and activate immune responses against pathogens inside cells.

100
Q

What do Helper T cells do?

A

Activate other T cells and stimulate phagocytes via cytokines.

101
Q

What are Memory T cells?

A

T cells that remain after exposure to an antigen for a more effective secondary response.

102
Q

What is Cell Mediated Immunity?

A

A response involving Helper T cells activating Killer T cells to target and kill infected cells.

103
Q

How do Killer T cells destroy infected cells?

A

They release perforin to create pores in the cell membrane, allowing granzymes to enter and induce apoptosis.

104
Q

What is the function of B cells?

A

They produce antibodies specific to antigens and can present these antigens to Helper T cells.

105
Q

What happens when B cells are activated?

A

They clone themselves and form plasma cells that produce antibodies against the specific antigen.

106
Q

What is Antibody Mediated (Humoral) Immunity?

A

The response that targets extracellular pathogens using antibodies produced by plasma cells.

107
Q

What is Opsonisation?

A

The process of tagging foreign pathogens for elimination by phagocytes.

108
Q

What is Immunological Memory?

A

Memory B and T lymphocytes persist after an infection, enabling a faster and larger response upon reinfection.

109
Q

What is the Primary Response?

A

The initial response of the adaptive immune system when exposed to a pathogen, requiring time to develop.

110
Q

What is the Secondary Response?

A

A faster and more robust response to the same pathogen upon subsequent exposure due to memory cells.

111
Q

Define incidence.

A

Incidence is a measure of how many NEW cases of a disease are occurring over a given time.

112
Q

Define prevalence.

A

Prevalence is a measure of the proportion of the population that HAVE the disease over a certain time period.

113
Q

Give an example of incidence and prevalence for a disease.

A

Incidence: 500 cases of Covid a day; Prevalence: 10,000 cases present in NSW.

114
Q

What is an outbreak?

A

An outbreak is when a specific disease suddenly starts to have an increased incidence.

115
Q

List some laws and legislation for disease control.

A

Improve access to vaccinations, facilitate screening and education, support access to treatment, and authorize public health authorities to limit contact.

116
Q

What is immunization?

A

Immunization is a successful and cost-effective public health strategy that saves millions of lives each year.

117
Q

What local factors affect monitoring and control of infectious diseases?

A

Sanitation, overcrowding, poor communication networks, agricultural practices, local or spiritual beliefs.

118
Q

Give an example of a local factor affecting influenza spread.

A

Influenza occurs in local environments like schools and hospitals, leading to higher incidences due to widespread exposure.

119
Q

What are regional factors affecting disease transmission?

A

Geographical factors, temperature, and precipitation can influence disease transmission in a specific area or region.

120
Q

Give an example of a regional factor affecting influenza.

A

Transmission of influenza can occur through airplanes, transporting both infected and non-infected individuals across regions.

121
Q

What are global factors related to infectious disease?

A

Increased movement of people, migration, effective communication, and global trends in medicine.

122
Q

Give an example of a global factor affecting influenza.

A

Influenza can spread to different countries via airplanes, especially when infected people travel internationally.

123
Q

Define virulence.

A

Virulence refers to the ability of a pathogen to cause damage to a host.

124
Q

What factors relate to the pathogen’s ability to infect?

A

Virulence, transmission methods, incubation period, evolution, and neutralization.

125
Q

What host factors can affect disease susceptibility?

A

Concurrent illness, general health, and the use of pharmaceuticals like immunosuppressants.

126
Q

What environmental factors influence the spread of diseases?

A

Environmental conditions, natural disasters, and reservoirs that may expose populations to unknown pathogens.

127
Q

What social factors affect health practices?

A

Societal beliefs, affordability and accessibility, war, isolated societies, and travel.

128
Q

List some measures for limiting the spread of diseases.

A

Availability of healthcare, social distancing, covering mouth/nose, washing hands, surveillance of strains, and quarantine.

129
Q

Define active immunity.

A

Active immunity involves your body developing an immune response to a pathogen by exposing it to recognizable antigens.

130
Q

What is naturally induced active immunity?

A

Naturally induced active immunity occurs when the body undergoes the immune response and suffers symptoms of the disease to develop immunity.

131
Q

What is artificially induced active immunity?

A

Artificially induced active immunity is achieved through vaccines, which cause the production of memory cells without the body experiencing disease symptoms.

132
Q

How do vaccines work?

A

Vaccines are harmless to the body and contain antigens that trigger an immune response, producing memory cells specific to that antigen.

133
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

Passive immunity is provided when a person is given antibodies to a disease rather than producing them through their own immune system.

134
Q

What is the advantage of passive immunity?

A

The advantage of passive immunity is that protection is immediate, whereas active immunity takes time to develop.

135
Q

How long does passive immunity last?

A

Passive immunity lasts only a few weeks or months, while active immunity is long-lasting.

136
Q

Define herd immunity.

A

Herd immunity occurs when a large portion of a community (generally 70%) becomes immune to a disease, reducing the likelihood of disease spread.

137
Q

How can herd immunity be achieved?

A

Herd immunity can be achieved through widespread infection or widespread vaccination.

138
Q

Who benefits from herd immunity?

A

Herd immunity helps protect vulnerable individuals who cannot get vaccinated, such as children, the immunocompromised, and the elderly.

139
Q

What are public health campaigns?

A

Public health campaigns are government regulations aimed at reducing the spread of disease based on epidemiological and scientific studies.

140
Q

What are public health programs?

A

Public health programs involve efforts to communicate information about specific diseases to raise awareness and advise affected individuals.

141
Q

Give examples of government regulations in public health.

A

Regulations include guidelines for food handling, sterilization in healthcare, garbage disposal, treatment of drinking water, and disease reporting.

142
Q

What types of public immunization programs exist?

A

Public immunization programs exist for diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, measles, mumps, rubella, and human papillomavirus.

143
Q

What are pesticides?

A

Pesticides are chemicals used to kill pests, including pathogens and their vectors, reducing disease occurrence.

144
Q

What is the purpose of insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides?

A

Insecticides kill insects, fungicides kill fungal pathogens, and herbicides kill weeds.

145
Q

Give an example of a pesticide and its effect on disease transmission.

A

DDT controlled the spread of malaria by killing mosquitoes, which are vectors for the disease.

146
Q

Why has the use of DDT been banned in many countries?

A

The effectiveness of DDT decreased due to mosquito resistance, and its harmful environmental effects led to its ban.

147
Q

What is genetic engineering?

A

Genetic engineering involves altering the genetic makeup of organisms to produce disease-resistant plants and animals and control disease spread.

148
Q

How can genetic engineering help in public health?

A

It can create vaccines for large populations, produce pesticides, and alter vectors like mosquitoes to prevent disease transmission.

149
Q

What are OX513A mosquitoes?

A

OX513A mosquitoes are genetically engineered to prevent the transmission of diseases like Zika, Malaria, and Dengue Virus by inserting new genes into their eggs.

150
Q

What do the new genes in OX513A mosquitoes do?

A

The new genes inserted into OX513A mosquitoes are lethality and fluorescent genes, making them disease-resistant and considered friendly to the environment.

151
Q

Define Active Immunity.

A

Active immunity involves your body developing an immune response to a pathogen by exposing it to recognizable antigens.

152
Q

What is naturally induced active immunity?

A

Naturally induced active immunity occurs when the body has to undergo the immune response and suffer the symptoms of the disease to develop immunity to it.

153
Q

What is artificially induced active immunity?

A

Artificially induced active immunity is achieved through the use of vaccines, which cause the production of memory cells without the body experiencing the symptoms of the disease.

154
Q

What are vaccines?

A

Vaccines are harmless substances that contain antigens, causing the body to undergo an immune response and produce memory cells specific to that antigen.

155
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

Passive immunity is provided when a person is given antibodies to a disease rather than producing them through their own immune system.

156
Q

What is the main advantage of passive immunity?

A

The main advantage of passive immunity is that protection is immediate, while active immunity takes time to develop.

157
Q

What is Herd Immunity?

A

Herd immunity occurs when a large portion (generally 70%) of a community becomes immune to a disease, making the spread unlikely and protecting the whole community.

158
Q

How can herd immunity be achieved?

A

Herd immunity can be achieved through widespread infection or widespread vaccination.

159
Q

What are Public Health Campaigns?

A

Public health campaigns are government regulations aimed at reducing the spread of disease based on epidemiological studies.

160
Q

What is the role of pesticides?

A

Pesticides are chemicals used to kill pests, including pathogens and vectors, reducing disease occurrence by controlling the spread.

161
Q

What are antibiotics?

A

Antibiotics are substances capable of destroying or inhibiting the growth of bacteria, derived from microorganisms or synthetically produced.

162
Q

What are the two types of antibiotics?

A

Bacteriocidal antibiotics kill bacteria, while bacteriostatic antibiotics inhibit bacterial growth.

163
Q

What is antibiotic sensitivity testing?

A

Antibiotic sensitivity testing involves placing antibiotics in a petri dish with bacteria to observe if there is a zone of inhibition indicating effectiveness.

164
Q

What is the primary goal of environmental management during an epidemic?

A

The primary goal of environmental management during an epidemic is to reduce the pool of available pathogens.

165
Q

What is the incubation period of Ebola virus disease?

A

The incubation period for Ebola virus disease is between 2-21 days.

166
Q

What are some symptoms of active tuberculosis?

A

Symptoms of active tuberculosis include chronic cough, coughing up blood, chest pain, weakness, weight loss, chills, fever, and night sweats.

167
Q

How is tuberculosis primarily spread?

A

Tuberculosis is primarily spread through the air when an infected individual coughs or sneezes and another person inhales the droplets.

168
Q

What are the first lines of defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis?

A

The first lines of defense include airway epithelial cells, mucociliary escalator, phagocytes (neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells), and macrophages.

169
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Cytokines are signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity and inflammation.

170
Q

What is leukocytosis?

A

Leukocytosis is an elevated white blood cell count due to the immune response to chronic infection.

171
Q

Define accuracy in scientific measurement.

A

Accuracy is the extent to which a measured value agrees with its true value (reference value).

172
Q

Define precision in scientific measurement.

A

Precision is the extent to which multiple measurements made under identical or similar conditions agree with each other.

173
Q

What does reliability refer to in scientific studies?

A

Reliability refers to the extent to which the findings of repeated experiments agree with each other.

174
Q

What is validity in the context of scientific experiments?

A

Validity is the extent to which an experiment addresses the question under investigation.

Bio Jeremy (4 decks)

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