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Mod 6 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Define Mutation

A

A mutation is a change in the genetic code of an organism, involving an altered sequence of nucleotides.

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2
Q

How do mutations occur?

A

Mutations occur spontaneously through errors in meiosis or mitosis, or can be induced by environmental agents.

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3
Q

What are the sources of mutations?

A

Electromagnetic radiation, chemicals, and naturally occurring mutagens.

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4
Q

Define Mutagen

A

A mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that causes a mutation.

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5
Q

Define Mutagenesis

A

Mutagenesis is the process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed by the production of a mutation.

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6
Q

What is Indirect Mutation?

A

Indirect Mutation occurs when radiation causes molecules to lose an electron, and these reactive intermediates can then interact with DNA to cause mutation.

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7
Q

What is Direct Mutation?

A

Direct Mutation is caused by high-energy radiation breaking the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA, sometimes distorting or displacing a section of a chromosome.

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8
Q

Define Electromagnetic Radiation

A

Electromagnetic Radiation is a form of energy that propagates as both electrical and magnetic waves traveling in packets called photons.

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9
Q

How does UV radiation cause skin cancer?

A

UV radiation can cause thymine dimers in DNA, which disrupt DNA replication, leading to mutations that may result in skin cancer.

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10
Q

What is Direct Action in radiation damage?

A

Direct Action occurs when energy releases electrons from the DNA molecule itself.

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11
Q

What is Indirect Action in radiation damage?

A

Indirect Action occurs when radiation ionizes water molecules, forming free radicals that cause biological damage to DNA.

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12
Q

How do chemical mutagens affect DNA?

A

Chemical mutagens interact with DNA by directly interfering with the cell cycle and causing structural changes to the sequence of nucleotides.

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13
Q

Define Base Analogs

A

Base Analogs are chemicals that resemble DNA bases and are mistakenly incorporated into the DNA during replication, causing mutations.

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14
Q

Define Intercalculating Agents

A

Intercalculating Agents are chemicals that slip between base pairs in DNA, causing frameshift mutations.

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15
Q

How do Metal Ions induce mutations?

A

Prolonged exposure to metals like mercury can obstruct DNA repair, promoting mutagenesis.

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16
Q

How do Alkylating Agents cause mutations?

A

Alkylating Agents add alkyl groups to DNA, which leads to base-pairing mistakes and mutagenesis.

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17
Q

What are DNA Reactive Chemicals (ROS)?

A

ROS are chemicals that react with DNA, causing breakages and cross-links in DNA strands, leading to mutations.

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18
Q

What are Naturally Occurring Mutagens?

A

Naturally Occurring Mutagens are agents from the environment, such as biological organisms, that can cause DNA mutations over time.

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19
Q

How do viruses cause mutations?

A

Viruses insert their own DNA into host cells, disrupting normal cell function and causing mutations.

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20
Q

Define Transposable Elements

A

Transposable Elements are short DNA sequences that move within the genome, naturally causing replication errors and gene interference.

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21
Q

What is Point Mutation?

A

Point Mutation is a genetic mutation where a single base pair is substituted, inserted, or deleted in a DNA sequence.

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22
Q

What is a Missense Mutation?

A

A Missense Mutation is a DNA change that results in a different amino acid being encoded in the resulting protein.

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23
Q

Give an example of Missense Mutation

A

Sickle Cell Anemia is caused by a missense mutation where glutamic acid is substituted with valine.

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24
Q

What is a Silent Mutation?

A

A Silent Mutation occurs when the altered base codes for the same amino acid, causing no observable change.

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25
Q

What is a Nonsense Mutation?

A

A Nonsense Mutation causes the premature insertion of a stop codon, resulting in a non-functional protein.

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26
Q

What is a Frameshift Mutation?

A

A Frameshift Mutation is caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the reading frame, resulting in a non-functional protein.

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27
Q

What is Chromosomal Mutation?

A

Chromosomal Mutation involves changes in the number or structure of chromosomes, which can alter the location of genes and gene expression.

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28
Q

Define Aneuploidy

A

Aneuploidy refers to the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell, often due to nondisjunction during meiosis.

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29
Q

What is Polyploidy?

A

Polyploidy is the condition of possessing more than two complete sets of chromosomes, common in plants but rare in animals.

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30
Q

What are Somatic Mutations?

A

Somatic Mutations are mutations that occur in non-reproductive cells and are not passed to offspring.

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31
Q

What are Germline Mutations?

A

Germline Mutations occur in reproductive cells and can be passed to offspring, affecting every cell in the resulting organism.

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32
Q

What are Coding DNA Segments?

A

Coding DNA Segments, or exons, directly code for proteins, and mutations in these regions affect protein function.

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33
Q

What are Non-Coding DNA Segments?

A

Non-Coding DNA Segments, or introns, do not code for proteins and usually do not affect the organism unless they affect gene expression.

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34
Q

What is Fertilisation?

A

Fertilisation is the process of fusing male and female gametes to form a zygote, increasing genetic variation.

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35
Q

What is Meiosis?

A

Meiosis is the cell division process that produces gametes, introducing genetic variation through crossing over, independent assortment, and random segregation.

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36
Q

What is a Gene Pool?

A

A Gene Pool is the combination of all genes, including alleles, present in a reproducing population.

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37
Q

What is Allele Frequency?

A

Allele Frequency is the relative frequency of an allele at a particular gene locus in a population.

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38
Q

Define Gene Flow

A

Gene Flow is the transfer of genetic material from one population to another, affecting allele frequencies and genetic variation.

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39
Q

Define Genetic Drift

A

Genetic Drift is the change in allele frequency in a population due to random chance, often reducing genetic diversity.

40
Q

What is the Bottleneck Effect?

A

The Bottleneck Effect is a type of genetic drift where a population is drastically reduced, resulting in decreased allele frequency.

41
Q

What is the Founder Effect?

A

The Founder Effect is a type of genetic drift where a small group breaks away from a population, resulting in lower genetic variation in the new group.

42
Q

What is Conservation Genetics?

A

Conservation Genetics uses genetic data to guide decisions on preserving endangered populations and maintaining genetic diversity.

43
Q

Define Biotechnology

A

Technology that utilises biological systems, living organisms, or parts of them to develop or create different products, especially the genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the production of antibiotics, hormones, etc.

44
Q

What are examples of Ancient Biotechnology?

A

Crop and animal domestication; use of living cells and microorganisms to make bread, cheese, sake, and wine.

45
Q

What are examples of Classical Biotechnology?

A

Selective breeding between plants and animals, production of medicine and antibiotics, and fermentation.

46
Q

What are examples of Modern Biotechnology?

A

DNA manipulation (splicing, amplification, recombinant DNA), DNA analysis (gel electrophoresis, DNA sequencing), biofuels, cloning, artificial insemination, IVF.

47
Q

What is CRISPR?

A

CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a bacterial defense system used in genome editing, allowing precise cutting of target DNA sequences using Cas9 enzymes.

48
Q

What is Bioethics?

A

The application of ethics to biological research and biotechnologies, considering factors like benefits vs. risks, individual rights, equality, and privacy.

49
Q

What are positive social uses of Biotechnology?

A

Increasing genetic diversity, improvements in health and nutrition, open-source sharing of scientific information.

50
Q

What are concerns with Biotechnology’s social uses?

A

Ownership of genetic information, intellectual property issues, potential harm to organisms, and evolution of resistant pathogen strains.

51
Q

What is an example of a cloned animal?

A

Dolly the Sheep, cloned via somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), raising ethical questions about cloning and animal health.

52
Q

What is Bt cotton?

A

A genetically modified plant that produces insecticidal proteins, potentially decreasing biodiversity and affecting farmers economically.

53
Q

What is Golden Rice?

A

Genetically modified rice that produces higher vitamin A content, developed to combat vitamin A deficiency.

54
Q

What are potential future uses of Biotechnology?

A

Genome editing to treat genetic disorders, infectious diseases, and cancer; synthetic biology for redesigning organisms with new abilities.

55
Q

What is Gene Therapy?

A

A technique used to prevent, treat, or cure human disorders or diseases by inserting or replacing genes.

56
Q

How can Biotechnology benefit the environment?

A

By creating genetically modified crops with higher yield and resistance, developing biofuels, and using biodegradable plastics.

57
Q

What are the short-term effects of Biotechnology on biodiversity?

A

Biotechnology can increase biodiversity by introducing new gene combinations.

58
Q

What are the long-term effects of Biotechnology on biodiversity?

A

Biotechnology can decrease biodiversity by selectively breeding desired traits, leading to a smaller gene pool.

59
Q

How does selective breeding affect biodiversity?

A

It decreases biodiversity by promoting specific gene combinations while other genes die out.

60
Q

How do genetically modified organisms pose risks to biodiversity?

A

Invasive species could develop unique characteristics or decrease the gene pool by outcompeting native species.

61
Q

How can genetically modified organisms increase biodiversity?

A

By reintroducing genes into a population through artificial insemination or pollination, thereby increasing the gene pool.

62
Q

How can biotechnology help conserve biodiversity?

A

Genetically modified crops can increase productivity without damaging land, preserving habitats; selective breeding can revive endangered species.

63
Q

Define selective breeding

A

Selective breeding is the process by which humans selectively control the breeding of parent organisms to produce offspring with a desired trait.

64
Q

List advantages of selective breeding

A
  1. Improved quality and longevity. 2. Hybrid vigor, where offspring exhibit superior characteristics over parents.
65
Q

List disadvantages of selective breeding

A
  1. Time-consuming and costly. 2. Reduces genetic diversity due to selective reproduction.
66
Q

Define artificial insemination

A

Artificial insemination is the process where sperm from a chosen male are artificially introduced to females to produce offspring.

67
Q

List advantages of artificial insemination

A
  1. Cost-effective and efficient. 2. Can conserve endangered species by bypassing fertility issues.
68
Q

List disadvantages of artificial insemination

A
  1. Can be costly due to specialized equipment. 2. Reduces genetic diversity, with offspring sharing the same father.
69
Q

Define artificial pollination

A

Artificial pollination is a mechanical technique used to pollinate plants when natural pollination is insufficient, involving deliberate selection of traits.

70
Q

List advantages of artificial pollination

A
  1. Controlled inheritance of traits. 2. Increased variation in population. 3. Conservation of endangered species.
71
Q

List disadvantages of artificial pollination

A
  1. Uncertain results. 2. Reduced biodiversity leading to monoculture.
72
Q

Define IVF (In Vitro Fertilisation)

A

IVF is the fertilization of an egg outside the female body in an artificial environment, involving the removal and fusion of gametes before implanting the zygote.

73
Q

List advantages of IVF

A
  1. High success rates for infertile females. 2. Genetic screening to avoid disorders. 3. Can freeze embryos for future use.
74
Q

List disadvantages of IVF

A
  1. Reduces genetic diversity. 2. Expensive. 3. Risk of passing on infertility genes.
75
Q

Define whole organism cloning

A

Whole organism cloning creates a genetically identical organism using undifferentiated cells, often through somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).

76
Q

Describe somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

A

SCNT involves inserting a somatic cell into an enucleated egg and stimulating it to divide, creating an embryo genetically identical to the donor.

77
Q

List disadvantages of whole organism cloning

A
  1. Not strictly identical due to somatic mutations. 2. Mitochondrial DNA from donor egg differs. 3. Time-consuming and expensive.
78
Q

Define gene cloning

A

Gene cloning produces multiple identical copies of a single gene by inserting it into a bacterial plasmid for replication.

79
Q

List steps in the gene cloning process

A
  1. Gene identification and cutting with restriction enzymes. 2. Insertion into bacterial plasmid. 3. Transformation and expression in host bacteria.
80
Q

Define therapeutic cloning

A

Therapeutic cloning produces embryonic stem cells that can differentiate into specific tissues or organs for transplantation, reducing rejection risks.

81
Q

Define recombinant DNA technology

A

Recombinant DNA technology manipulates DNA by combining segments from different species using enzymes and plasmids to create new genes or gene functions.

82
Q

Define transgenic organism

A

A transgenic organism has genetic material altered by introducing foreign DNA from another species using genetic engineering.

83
Q

Give an example of a transgenic organism in agriculture

A

Bt cotton: created by inserting a toxin gene from the bacterium Bt into cotton plants, protecting against pests.

84
Q

List benefits of Bt cotton

A
  1. Reduces need for pesticides. 2. Improves soil quality and yield.
85
Q

Give an example of a transgenic organism in medicine

A

Human insulin: produced by inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria, which then produce insulin for diabetic patients.

86
Q

Give an example of a transgenic organism in industry

A

Genetically engineered microorganisms like bacteria that produce biofuels by breaking down biomass more efficiently.

87
Q

List benefits of genetic technologies in agriculture

A
  1. Creation of pest-resistant crops. 2. Reduced pesticide use, minimizing environmental impact.
88
Q

List benefits of genetic technologies in medicine

A
  1. Personalized medicine. 2. Faster pharmaceutical development. 3. Improved treatment of diseases with biological molecules.
89
Q

List benefits of genetic technologies in industry

A
  1. Creation of organisms that produce environmentally friendly chemicals. 2. Use of GM bacteria to clean pollution.
90
Q

How does biotechnology affect biodiversity in the short term?

A

Increases biodiversity by introducing new genes into a population, adding diversity to the gene pool.

91
Q

How does biotechnology affect biodiversity in the long term?

A

Decreases biodiversity as selected desirable genes dominate the population, replacing other gene varieties.

92
Q

Define golden rice

A

Genetically modified rice with increased beta carotene to combat vitamin A deficiency, aimed at reducing hunger and improving public health.

93
Q

List social influences on biotechnology

A
  1. Needs of society. 2. Harm to the environment. 3. Health disparities. 4. Ethical issues.
94
Q

List economic influences on biotechnology

A
  1. Distribution of wealth. 2. Research funding. 3. GMO regulations. 4. Uneven economic benefits.
95
Q

List cultural influences on biotechnology

A
  1. Religious beliefs. 2. Ethical concerns. 3. Experiences with biotechnology.
96
Q

Give an example of social acceptance influencing biotechnology

A

DNA fingerprinting: accepted for its accuracy in solving criminal cases, but expensive and unavailable in some regions.

97
Q

Give an example of cultural beliefs influencing biotechnology

A

IVF: criticized by some religious groups as an unnatural intervention in reproduction.

Bio Jeremy (4 decks)

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