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biology - exam > MOCKS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS > Flashcards

MOCKS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS Flashcards

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1
Q

2.2 cells are separated from their surrounding environment by

A

a cell membrane

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2
Q

2.2 within the cell membrane is the

A

cytoplasm

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3
Q

2.2 eukaryotic cells have … contained within their cytoplasm

A

organelles

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4
Q

2.2 organelles are

A

where specific processes take place within the cell

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5
Q

2.2 what is in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell

A

nucleus, mitochondria & ribosomes

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6
Q

2.2 plant cells contain the following additional structures

A

cell wall, chloroplasts & a vacuole

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7
Q

2.3 function of the nucleus

A

contains genetic material in chromosomes
controls cell division

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8
Q

2.3 function of the cytoplasm

A

supports cell structure
site of many chemical reactions
contains water and many solutes
jelly-like substance

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9
Q

2.3 function of the cell membrane

A

holds the cell together
controls substances entering and leaving the cell

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10
Q

2.3 function of the cell wall

A

gives the cell extra support and defines its shape

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11
Q

2.3 function of the mitochondria

A

site of aerobic respiration providing energy for the cell

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12
Q

2.3 function of the chloroplasts

A

site of photosynthesis - provides food for plants
chlorophyll pigment absorbs light energy

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13
Q

2.3 function of the ribosomes

A

the site of protein synthesis

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14
Q

2.3 function of the vacuole

A

stores cell sap
used for storage
helps support the shape of the cell

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15
Q

2.4 how many structures does a plant cell have

A

8

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16
Q

2.4 how many structures does an animal cell have

A

5

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17
Q

2.4 in addition to the structures an animal cell has, a plant cell also has

A

chloroplasts, a (cellulose) cell wall and a vacuole

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18
Q

2.4 what does an animal cell have

A

a nucleus, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes and a cytoplasm

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19
Q

2.4 what does a plant cell have

A

a nucleus, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, cell wall and a vacuole

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20
Q

2.7 the chemical elements present in carbohydrates

A

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
(C,H,O)

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21
Q

2.7 the chemical elements present in proteins

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
(C,H,O,N)

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22
Q

2.7 the chemical elements present in lipids (fats&oils)

A

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
(C,H,O)

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23
Q

2.8 starch and glycogen is from

A

simple sugars

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24
Q

2.8 protein is from

A

amino acids

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25
Q

2.8 lipids are from

A

fatty acids and glycerol

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26
Q

2.8 a monosaccharide is a …

A

simple sugar like glucose

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27
Q

2.8 a disaccharide is made when

A

two monosaccharides join together e.g. maltose = glucose & glucose
sucrose = glucose & fructose

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28
Q

2.8 a polysaccharide is formed when

A

lots of monosaccharides join together

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29
Q

2.8 polysaccharides starch, glycogen or cellulose are all formed when

A

lots of glucose molecules join together

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30
Q

2.8 most fats (lipids) in the body are made up of

A

triglycerides

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31
Q

2.8 lipids basic unit is

A

one glycerol molecule chemically bonded to three fatty acid chains

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32
Q

2.8 proteins are formed from

A

long chains of amino acids

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33
Q

2.8 when amino acids are joined together

A

a protein is formed

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34
Q

2.10 enzymes are biological

A

catalysts

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35
Q

2.10 a catalyst is a ……..

A

chemical which increases the rate of a reaction without being used up itself in the reaction

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36
Q

2.10 the theory for understanding how enzymes work is the

A

lock and key theory

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37
Q

2.10 what is the lock and key theory

A

the substrate and enzyme collide,
the substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme,
(the reaction occurs by an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy)
once the reaction occurs, the products don’t fit - so they are released,
the enzyme is free to catalyse the next reaction

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38
Q

2.10 the active site has a particular shape which is … to the shape of the substrates

A

complementary

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39
Q

2.10 because the shape of the active site is complementary to that of the substrates, this means

A

each enzyme can only catalyse one reaction

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40
Q

2.11 as temperature increases the enzyme & substrate have more

A

kinetic energy
so they move faster and there are more successful collisions

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41
Q

2.11 high temperatures and changes of pH cause the shape

A

to change

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42
Q

2.11 when the shape changes we say this is

A

the protein being denatured

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43
Q

2.11 when the active site changes shape it is no longer

A

complementary to the substrate

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44
Q

2.12 practical: how can enzyme activity be affected by changes in temperature

A

place spots of iodine into each dip of a spotting tile
add 5cm^3 of starch suspension into a boiling tube w/ a syringe
with a different syringe add 5cm^3 of amylase solution into another tube
fill a beaker w/ water at 20C & place both boiling tubes inside for 5 minutes
pour amylase solution into the starch suspension leaving it in the water bath
take a sample w/ pipette & add a drop to the iodine solution in the spotting tile
record colour change of the solution in the tile
repeat every 30 seconds for 10 minutes
until the iodine solution remains orange indicating the starch is used up
repeat the experiment with the water bath at diff temps between 20C & 60*C

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45
Q

2.13 what is the optimum pH for most enzymes

A

7

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46
Q

2.13 which enzymes have a lower pH than 7

A

those produced in acidic conditions e.g. the stomach
- pH 2

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47
Q

2.13 which enzymes have a higher pH than 7

A

those produced in alkaline conditions e.g. the duodenum - pH 8/9

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48
Q

2.13 what happens if the pH is too high or too low

A

the bonds that hold the amino acid chain together can be disrupted / destroyed
this changes the shape of the active site
so the substrate can no longer fit into it
this reduces the rate of activity
moving too far away from the pH - the enzyme will denature

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49
Q

2.15 definition of diffusion

A

the random movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

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50
Q

2.15 definition of osmosis

A

the net diffusion of free water molecules from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration across a partially permeable membrane

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51
Q

2.15 osmosis in cell:
what is: solution outside cell has same water potential as inside cell - no net movement

A

isotonic solution

(animal = normal)
(plant = flaccid)

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52
Q

2.15 osmosis in cell:
what is: solution outside cell has higher water potential then inside cell - net movement of free water molecules into cell

A

hypotonic solution

(animal = lysed)
(plant = turgid)

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53
Q

2.15 osmosis in cell:
what is: solution outside cell has lower water potential then inside cell - net movement of free water molecules out of cell

A

hypertonic solution

(animal = shrivelled)
(plant = plasmolysed)

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54
Q

2.15 definition of active transport

A

movement of molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration using ATP

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55
Q

2.16 the four main factors that affect the rate of movement

A

surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient

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56
Q

2.16 why is a larger surface area a good thing

A

it quickens the rate at which substances can move across its surface

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57
Q

2.16 example of large surface area

A

highly folded surface of the small intestine increases its surface area

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58
Q

2.16 why is a shorter distance a good thing

A

the smaller the distance molecules have to travel, the faster the transport will occur

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59
Q

2.16 example of short diffusion distance

A

alveoli walls are one cell thick - rate of diffusion across them is as fast as possible

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60
Q

2.16 why is higher temperature a good thing

A

the higher the temperature, the faster molecules move as they have more energy

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61
Q

2.16 how is higher temp a good thing

A

because there are more collisions against the cell membrane and therefore a faster rate of movement across them

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62
Q

2.16 why is a greater difference in a concentration gradient a good thing

A

the greater the difference in concentration on either side of the membrane, the faster movement across it will occur

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63
Q

2.16 how is a greater difference in a concentration gradient a good thing

A

because the on the side with the higher concentration, more random collisions against the membrane will occur

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64
Q

2.17 practical: investigating diffusion

A

coloured agar is made from indicators
coloured agar is cut into required dimensions
calculate the surface area, SA:V R and volume and record it
cubes placed in boiling tubes of different solutions (same volume of it)
^^^ e.g. dilute hydrochloric acid
measurements taken of time for cube to completely change colour of indicator
can draw a graph of rate of diffusion (rate of colour change) changes with surface area : volume ratio of agar cubes

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65
Q

2.17 practical: investigating osmosis

A

prepare a range of sucrose (sugar) solutions ranging from 0 Mol/dm3 (distilled water) to 1 mol/dm3
set up 6 labelled test tubes with 10cm3 of each of the sucrose solutions
using the knife, cork borer and ruler, cut 6 equally-sized cylinders of potato
blot each one with a paper towel and weigh on the balance
put 1 piece into each concentration of sucrose solution
after 4 hours, remove them, blot with paper towels and reweigh them

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66
Q

2.27 function of the mouth

A

where mechanical digestion takes place
teeth chew food - smaller pieces
amylase enzymes in saliva digest starch into maltose
shaped into bolus so it can be swallowed

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67
Q

2.27 function of the oesophagus

A

connects mouth to the stomach
contractions take place to push bolus down

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68
Q

2.27 function of the stomach

A

food’s mechanically digested by churning
protease enzymes chemically digest proteins
hydrochloric acid kills bacteria & optimum pH for protease enzymes to work

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69
Q

2.27 function of the small intestine
(duodenum)

A

food coming out stomach finishes being ^ - digested by enzymes produced here & also secreted from the pancreas
! slightly alkaline pH 8-9

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70
Q

2.27 function of the large intestine
(colon & rectum)

A

water is absorbed from remaining material in the COLON to produce faeces

faeces is stored in the rectum and removed through the anus

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71
Q

2.27 function of the pancreas

A

produces amylase, protease & lipase
secretes enzymes is an alkaline fluid into the duodenum to raise pH of fluid coming out of the stomach

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72
Q

2.27 what are the 6 structures in the alimentary canal

A

mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine & pancreas

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73
Q

2.27 function of the small intestine
(last part of the small intestine- ileum)

A

where absorption of digested food
- molecules takes place
long & lined with villi - increasing surface
- area where absorption can take place
! slightly alkaline pH 8-9

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74
Q

2.27 the stages of food breakdown

A

ingestion - taking in substances,
mechanical digestion - breaking food into smaller pieces
chemical digestion - large, insoluble molecules broken down into small, soluble molecules
absorption - movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the blood
assimilation - movement of digested food molecules into body where they are used, becoming part of the cells
egestion - passing out undigested or unabsorbed food (as faeces) through the anus

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75
Q

2.29 protein ——>

A

protein —(pepsin)—>
[peptides] —(trypsin)—> amino acids

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76
Q

2.29 (carbohydrates?) starch ——>

A

(carbohydrates?) starch —(amylase)—> [maltose] —(maltase)—> glucose

77
Q

2.29 lipids ——>

A

lipids —(lipase)—> glycerol & fatty acids

78
Q

2.29 what enzyme breaks down protein into peptides
what enzyme breaks down peptides amino acids

A

protease: pepsin
pepsin is made in the stomach

protease: trypsin
trypsin is made in the pancreas & small intestine

79
Q

2.29 what enzyme breaks down carbohydrates into maltose
what enzyme breaks down maltose into glucose

A

carbohydrase: amylase
amylase is made in pancreas and salivary glands

carbohydrase: maltase
maltase is made in pancreas

80
Q

2.29 what enzyme breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

A

lipase: lipase enzymes
lipase enzymes are produced in the pancreas

81
Q

2.32 how is the small intestine adapted for absorption

A

it is very long and has a highly folded surface with millions of villi
which increase the surface area allowing absorption to take place faster and more efficiently
peristalsis helps by mixing food and enzymes and keeping things moving

82
Q

2.32 how is the structure of a villus adapted for absorption

A

a large surface area:
microvilli on the surface
short diffusion distance:
one cell thick walls
steep concentration gradient:
- surrounded by a network of blood
capillaries - transport
glucose&amino acids away
- a lacteal to transport fatty acids and glycerol away

83
Q

2.34 how does the process of respiration produce ATP

A

energy is released from glucose either in the presence of oxygen (aerobic) or no oxygen (anaerobic)
resulting in the production of carbon dioxide and water as waste products
energy is transferred in the form of ATP

84
Q

2.35 what does ATP provide for cells

A

ATP provides energy for cells
(muscle contractions & keeping warm - painting a constant temperature)

85
Q

2.36 differences between aerobic & anaerobic respiration

A

aerobic needs oxygen
anaerobic doesn’t need oxygen

86
Q

2.36 differences between aerobic & anaerobic respiration with the breakdown of glucose

A

breakdown is complete in aerobic
breakdown is incomplete in anaerobic

87
Q

2.36 differences between aerobic & anaerobic respiration with the products

A

aerobic = carbon dioxide & water

In anaerobic:
animal cells= lactic acid
yeast= carbon dioxide & ethanol

88
Q

2.36 differences between aerobic & anaerobic respiration with the energy released

A

aerobic releases a lot of energy
anaerobic releases a little

89
Q

2.37 word equation for aerobic respiration

A

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

90
Q

2.37 the balanced chemical symbol equation for aerobic respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20

91
Q

2.38 the word equation for anaerobic respiration in animals

A

glucose —> lactic acid

92
Q

2.38 the word equation for anaerobic respiration in plants

A

glucose —> ethanol + carbon dioxide

93
Q

2.39 practical: evolution of carbon dioxide from respiring seeds

A

measure out 10 cm3 of hydrogencarbonate indicator into 3 boiling tubes
put in a layer of cotton wool
place 10 germinating seeds in tube A
place 10 boiled/dead seeds in tube B
place 10 glass beads in tubeC
seal each tube with a rubber bung
after 3 hours, observe the colour of the indicator
high CO2 = yellow
atmospheric CO2 = orange
low CO2 = purple

94
Q

2.39 practical: demonstrating the production of heat from respiring seeds

A

flask A with the dead seeds
flask B with the germinating seeds
make sure the cotton wool is plugging the top of each flask
hold the thermometer in place with the cotton wool
invert the flask
record the initial temperature
after 4 days, record the final temperature

95
Q

2.39 practical: CORMS evaluation evolution of carbon dioxide

A

change - we will change the content of the boiling tube (germinating seeds, dead seeds or glass beads)
organisms - the seeds used should all be of the same age, size and species
repeat - we will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
measurement 1 - we will observe the change in the hydrogen carbonate indicator
measurement 2 - …after 3 hours
same - we will control the volume of hydrogen carbonate indicator, the number of seeds/beads, the temperature of the environment

96
Q

2.39 practical: CORMS evaluation evolution of heat

A

change - we will change the content of the flasks (germinating seeds or dead seeds)
organisms - the seeds used should all be of the same age, size and species
repeat - repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
measurement 1 - change in the temperature on the thermometer
measurement 2 - …after 4 days
same - control the number of seeds, the starting temperature of the flasks, the material and size of the flasks

97
Q

2.39 practical: analysis

A

the thermometer in the flask with the germinating seeds (Flask B) should show an increase in temperature
- the seeds in flask B are respiring and producing heat energy in the process
flask A should remain at room temperature
the seeds in flask A are not respiring because they are dead, so the temperature remains the same
this shows that respiration is an exothermic reaction

98
Q

2.49 smoking can cause … and several types of cancer including …

A

coronary heart disease and lung cancer

99
Q

2.49 what does nicotine do

A

it narrows blood vessels - increased blood pressure
increased heart rate

100
Q

2.49 what does carbon monoxide do

A

binds irreversibly to haemoglobin
breathing frequency has to increase
increases risk of coronary heart disease & strokes

101
Q

2.49 emphysema does what

A

makes the alveoli less elastic & cannot stretch
the breakdown of alveoli reduces the surface area for gas exchange

102
Q

2.49 smoking increases the risk of cancer which is

A

the rapid uncontrolled cell growth

103
Q

2.49 tobacco smoke contains ______ ________ which permanently binds to the haemoglobin forming __________________ reducing the amount of oxygen being transported by the blood

A

carbon monoxide
carboxyhaemoglobin

104
Q

2.49 in healthy lungs the linings of the trachea and bronchi are

A

specialised to prevent dirt and bacteria entering the lungs

105
Q

2.49 the cilia of the lining cells move transporting the mucus

A

up the airways where it is then swallowed

106
Q

2.49 chemicals in tobacco smoke destroy _____ reducing their number, at the same time mucus production will increase. the mucus cannot be moved out of the airways quickly so it ______ __ causing _______ _____ and increases the risk of infection

A

cilia
builds up
smokers cough

107
Q

2.49 __________ is a disease resulting from the build up of in refuted mucus in the bronchi and bronchioles

A

bronchitis

108
Q

2.49 smoke can also reach the alveoli damaging them: the alveoli walls break down in places and fuse together forming larger irregular air spaces this ___ the surface area for gas exchange so ____ oxygen diffuses into the blood, this disease is called _________ and kills around 20k people in Britain per year

A

decreases
less
emphysema

109
Q

2.49 chemicals in cigarettes include:

A

tar - a carcinogen (a substance that causes cancer)
nicotine - an addictive substance which also narrows blood vessels
carbon monoxide - reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood

110
Q

2.50 practical: the effect of excerise on breathing method

A

work out student A’s breathing rate at rest
count their number breaths for 15 seconds and multiply by 4
repeat to calculate an average
student A should then exercise for a set time (at least 4 minutes)
count the breaths taken in 15 seconds and multiply by 4 to obtain the breathing rate per minute
compare the result to the breathing rate at rest in order to work out the change in breathing rate as a result of exercise
repeat this last step every minute after exercise for 5 minutes
repeat the process for student B
finally, repeat the whole investigation for each student after a period of rest

111
Q

2.50 practical: the effect of exercise on breathing results

A

frequency of breathing increases when exercising
this is because muscles are working harder and aerobically respiring more and they need more oxygen to be delivered to them (and carbon dioxide removed) to keep up with the energy demand
if they cannot meet the energy demand they will also respire anaerobically, producing lactic acid

112
Q

2.50 practical: the effect of exercise on breathing analysis

A

after exercise has finished, the breathing rate remained elevated for a period of time
this is because the lactic acid that has built up in muscles needs to be removed as it lowers the pH of cells and can denature enzymes catalysing cell reactions
it can only be removed by combining it with oxygen - this is known as ‘repaying the oxygen debt’
this can be tested by seeing how long it takes after exercise for the breathing rate to return to normal
the longer it takes, the more lactic acid produced during exercise and the greater the oxygen debt that needs to be repaid

113
Q

2.50 practical: what might an unfit individual have

A

higher breathing rate while resting
more rapid increase in breathing rate during exercise
longer recovery period for their breathing rate to return back to a normal resting rate

114
Q

2.50 practical: how do you control all variables

A

ensure students are similar size, general fitness, age, gender and provide each with the same meal before exercise

115
Q

2.50 practical: CORMS evaluation

A

change - We will change whether the student has exercised or not
organisms - The students should be of the same age, gender, size and general fitness
repeat - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
measurement 1 - We will measure the change in breathing rate
measurement 2 - …immediately after exercise and each minute for the subsequent 5 minutes
same - We will control the type of exercise carried out, the temperature of the environment, the food intake of the students prior to the investigation

116
Q

2.50 practical: exercise causes the frequency

A

exercise causes the frequency of breathing to increase in order to provide more oxygen for respiration and to pay off any subsequent oxygen debt

117
Q

2.50 practical: apparatus needed for the effect of exercise

A

a stop watch
2 students

118
Q

2.56B the loss of water vapour from the leaves is called

A

transpiration

119
Q

2.56B examiners definition of transpiration

A

the evaporation of water from the surface of a plant

120
Q

2.57B how does temperature affect the rate of transpiration

A

water will evaporate quickly as the water molecules have more kinetic energy

121
Q

2.57B how does humidity affect the rate of transpiration

A

humid air - water vapour = smaller conc gradient so transpiration slows down

122
Q

2.57B how does wind speed affect the rate of transpiration

A

moving air - water vapour blown away from leaf - speeds up transpiration

123
Q

2.57B transpiration .. as wind speed ..

A

transpiration increases as wind speed increases

124
Q

2.57B transpiration .. as humidity ..

A

transpiration increases as humidity decreases

125
Q

2.57B transpiration .. as temperature ..

A

transpiration increase as temp increases

126
Q

2.57B light intensity does NOT affect

A

evaporation

127
Q

2.57B how does light intensity affect the rate of transpiration

A

in daylight stomata leaves are open to supply CO2 for photosynthesis
allows more water to diffuse out leaves into atmosphere

128
Q

2.58B practical: how to set up a potometer

A

set up underwater
cut the stem
shoot stem in bung
grease joint w jelly (no air entry/water loss)
bung in potometer
tap closed full of water
lift potometer out of water
leave end of capillary tube out of water until air bubble forms & then put in beaker of water
measure rate as distance bubble travelled in 5 mins

129
Q

2.58B practical: a potometer is to measure

A

measure the rate of water uptake from a leafy shoot

130
Q

2.58B practical: we can use potometer to collect readings in normal air or windy conditions by

A

using a hairdryer on cold

131
Q

2.58B practical: we can use potometer to collect readings in temperature

A

increases and decreases

132
Q

2.58B practical: we can use potometer to collect readings in increased humidity by

A

using a clear plastic bag

133
Q

2.58B practical: we can use potometer to collect readings by changing the l & d

A

lightness and darkness

134
Q

2.58B practical: changing the environmental factors stimulates

A

all the different conditions which affect the rate of transpiration

135
Q

2.1 organelle ->

c , t , o , o & o

A

cell, tissue, organ, organ system & organism

136
Q

2.1 organelles are

A

structures that carry out specific processes the cell needs to survive

137
Q

2.1 tissues are

A

groups of similar cells

that work together to carry out the same function

138
Q

2.1 an example of tissue in humans is

A

muscle tissue

139
Q

2.1 organs are made up of

A

several different tissues

working together to carry out a more complex function

140
Q

2.1 an example of an organ in a human is

A

the heart

(muscle is one of the tissues making up the heart)

141
Q

2.1 organ systems are made up of

A

several different organs working together to carry out a complex function essential to life

e.g. circulating blood around the body

142
Q

2.1 organelle ->

A

cell

143
Q

2.1 cell ->

A

tissue

144
Q

2.1 tissue ->

A

organ

145
Q

2.1 organ ->

A

organ system

146
Q

2.1 organ system ->

A

organism

147
Q

2.46 what is the thorax

A

the human chest cavity

148
Q

2.46 what does the thorax consist of

A

the ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and pleural membranes

149
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the ribs

A

bone structure that protects internal organs such as the lungs

150
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the intercostal muscles

A

muscles between the ribs which control their movement causing inhalation & exhalation

151
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the diaphragm

A

sheet of connective tissue and muscle at the bottom of the thorax that helps change the volume of the thorax to allow inhalation & exhalation

152
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the trachea

A

windpipe that connects the mouth and nose to the lungs

153
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the larynx

A

also known as the voice box, when air passes across here we are able to make sounds

154
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the bronchi (plural)

A

large tubes branching off the trachea with one bronchus (singular) for each lung

155
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the bronchioles

A

bronchi split to form smaller tubes called bronchioles in the lungs connected to alveoli

156
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the alveoli

A

tiny air sacs where gas exchange take place

157
Q

2.46 in the thorax describe the structure of the pleural cavity

A

the fluid filled space between the pleural membranes which reduces friction and allows the lungs to move freely

158
Q

2.46 the lungs are the … surface in humans

A

gas exchange

159
Q

2.46 what features do all gas exchange surfaces have in common

A

large surface area for faster diffusion of gases across the surface
thin walls to ensure diffusion distances remain short
good ventilation with air so diffusion gradients can be maintained
good blood supply to maintain a high concentration gradient so diffusion occurs faster

160
Q

2.47 muscles are only able to pull on bones not push them meaning

A

there must be two sets of intercostal muscles to work antagonistically to facilitate breathing

161
Q

2.47 what do the external intercostal muscles do

A

pull the ribcage up

162
Q

2.47 what do the internal intercostal muscles do

A

pull the ribcage down

163
Q

2.47 which intercostal muscles pull the ribcage up

A

the external intercostal muscles

164
Q

2.47 which intercostal muscles pull the ribcage down

A

the internal intercostal muscles

165
Q

2.47 what is the diaphragm

A

a thin sheet of muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdomen

166
Q

2.47 during inhalation describe the diaphragm & intercostal muscles

A

external intercostal muscles contract
ribcage moves up and out
diaphragm contracts & flattens
volume of thorax increases
pressure inside thorax decreases
- relative to the outside body -
air is drawn in

167
Q

2.47 during exhalation describe the diaphragm & intercostal muscles

A

external intercostal muscles relax
ribcage moves down and in
diaphragm relaxes & becomes dome-shaped
volume of thorax decreases
pressure inside thorax increases
- relative to the outside body -
air is forced out

168
Q

2.48 how are alveoli highly adapted for gas exchange

A

large surface area to volume ratio:
there are many rounded alveolar sacs
minimise / short diffusion distance:
alveoli have thin, single layers of cells
steep concentration gradient:
ventilation maintains high levels of oxygen & low levels of carbon dioxide
good bloody supply & maintains concentration gradients:
ensures a constant supply of blood high in carbon dioxide & low in oxygen
a layer of moisture on the surface of the alveoli helps diffusion as gases dissolve

169
Q

2.49 smoking cigarettes has been linked to

A

disease in the lungs and is a risk factor in coronary heart disease

170
Q

2.49 what does nicotine in cigarettes do

A

narrows blood vessels and increases heart rate, leading to increased blood pressure
causes high blood pressure that leads to blood clots forming in the arteries potentially resulting in heart attack or stroke

171
Q

2.49 what does carbon monoxide in cigarettes do

A

binds irreversibly to haemoglobin reducing the capacity of blood to carry oxygen
breathing frequency & depth need to increase putting more strain on the breathing system
circulatory system needs to pump blood faster
- raising blood pressure & increasing risk of coronary heart disease & stroke

172
Q

2.49 what does tar in cigarettes do

A

it’s a carcinogen linked to increased chances of cancerous cells developing in the lungs
contributes to COPD which occurs when chronic bronchitis and emphysema occur together

173
Q

2.49 what happens in chronic bronchitis

A

tar stimulates goblet cells & mucus glands to enlarge and produce more mucus
mucus builds up blocking the smallest bronchioles
leading to infections
build up of mucus can result in damage to the cilia preventing them from beating & removing the mucus
a smokers cough is the attempt to move the mucus

174
Q

2.49 what happens in emphysema

A

phagocytes that enter the lungs release elastase an enzyme that breaks down the elastic fibres in the alveoli
alveoli become less elastic & cannot stretch so many burst
the breakdown of alveoli reduces the surface area for gas exchange
patients become breathless & wheezy

175
Q

2.67 What are the factors that may increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease?

A
  1. Obesity
  2. High Blood pressure
  3. High Cholestrol
  4. Smoking
176
Q

2.67 How can obesity increase risk of developing coronary heart disease?

A

Carrying extra weight puts a strain on the heart.
increased weight can lead to Type 2 diabetes which further damages the blood vessels.

177
Q

2.67 How can high blood pressure increase risk of developing coronary heart disease?

A

High blood pressure increases the force of the blood against the artery walls and consequently leads to damage of the vessels.

178
Q

2.67 How can high cholestrol increase risk of developing coronary heart disease?

A

High cholestrol speeds up the build up of fatty plaques in the arteries which leads to blockages.

179
Q

2.67 How can smoking increase risk of developing coronary heart disease?

A

Chemicals in smoke cause an increase in plaque build up and and increase in blood pressure.
Carbon monoxide also reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the red blood cells.

180
Q

2.68 How many types of blood vessel are there? And name them

A

3.
Arteries, veins, capillaries.
Each vessel is specifically adapted to carry out its particular function efficiently.

181
Q

2.68 What are the smaller vessels that branch off from the arteries called?

A

Arterioles (small arteries)

182
Q

2.68 What are the smaller vessels that branch into veins called ?

A

Venules (small veins)

183
Q

2.68 What are the key features of arteries?

A

Carry blood at high pressure away from the heart
Carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery)
Have thick muscular walls containing elastic fibres
Have a narrow lumen
Blood flows through at a fast speed.

184
Q

2.68 How is the structure of an artery adapted to its function?

A

Thick muscular walls containing elastic fibres withstand the high pressure of blood and maintain the blood pressure as it recoils after the blood has passed through
A narrow lumen also helps to maintain high pressure.
See images

185
Q

2.68 What are the key features of veins?

A

Carry blood at low pressure towards the heart
Carry deoxygenated blood (other than the pulmonary vein)
Have thin walls
Have a large lumen
Contain valves
Blood flows through a slow speed

186
Q

2.68 How is the structure of a vein adapted to its function?

A

A large lumen reduces resistance to blood flow under low pressure.
Valves prevent the backflow of blood as it is under low pressure

187
Q

2.68 What are the key features of capillaries?

A

Carry blood at low pressure within tissues
Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Have walls that are one cell thick
Have ‘leaky’ walls
Speed of blood flow is slow

188
Q

2.68 How is the structure of a capillary adapted to its function?

A

Capillaries have walls that are one cell thick (short diffusion distance) so substances can easily diffuse in and out of them.
The ‘leaky’ walls allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid surrounding cells.

biology - exam (10 decks)

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