Mock questions 2024 Flashcards
To what extent was the culture of the Renaissance affected by Neo-Platonism?
Definitions:
Culture: the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively.
Neo-platonism: A synthesis created by Plotinus incorporating Aristotle, Pythagoras and others into Platonism. In the Renaissance this was combined with christianity.
In philosophy/learning:
Over exaggerated role of Neo-platonism in Renaissance.
-Claim that Plato replaced Aristotle is false.
-Aristotle still at centre of most university courses of education in the Renaissance, even in Florence.
-Therefore limits impact of Neoplatonism on Renaissance culture.
However:
- Important in Renaissance culture was difference between Plato and Aristotle.
- Raphael painted in room i n Vatican for Pope Julius II, ‘The School of Athens’ - dramatic contrast - Aristotle’s hand stretched towards material earth, Plato pointing to spiritual heaven.
-Expresses view of Florentine Neoplatonists, Aristotle stressed wholly material; nature of mankind, argued no soul of spirit that survived death. Plato foreshadowed christian doctrine of soul surviving death.
In Art:
Platonic ideas existed - limited. However influential in their interpretation.
-Idea of Importance of balance of active and contemplative life - Tomb of Julius the II - two girls either side of central figure, Rachel is representetive of contemplative life - Leah representitive of active life - Micahelangelo - Neoplatonistic ideas sen in great works of art.
Botticellis ‘Primavera’ - Platonic love - (sensual, spiritual, divine) The Graces represent platonic love - one looking to mercury who points to the heavens.
In Education:
- Humanism: advocated for a human-centered approach to learning.
-Humanism values aligned with aligning with Neo-Platonic ideals of the ascent of the soul through intellectual pursuits.
-Neoplatonic academy in Florence- founded by great/influentil patron - cosimo.
-Neoplatnic texts synthesised christian doctrine with the ideas of the ancient classical world - significant to the Renaissance. ‘Oration on the dignity of man’ - Pico della mirandolla.
In Architecture:
-Bassilica and Medici palace: Symetery and Geormetry - introduced by Neoplatonism - because it looked ot bring together proportion into one harmnoius life.
How far was printing the cause for the spread of Renaissance culture?
Significant in the spread of ideas, made texts much more accessible.
Accessibility/Affordability:
- Prior to press - copied by hand - time consuming, caused inaccuracies.
-Printing press - mass produced at fast pace.
-e.g. around 1580 about 40 million books had been produced in the last half century, compared to around 5 million per a half century around 1475.
-Democrasized knowledge - more people became literate - motivation to read.
-Previously only elite and clergy.
-By early 16th century, about 90% of printed books in vernacular language.
-Classical texts translated into vernacular languages - spread of revival of the classics (key element of Renaissance culture.)
-E.g. In Venice editions 35% of the vernacular texts printed were classical texts.
-By mid 16th century - there were printing presses in over 200 cities.
Spread new ideas and cultural development.
-Scholars and artists could engage with broader audiences.
-E.g. Erasmus, prominent humanist scholar, over 700 editions of his book ‘In praise of folly’.
-Work of Roman poet Virgil - over 50 editions by 1500. more widely available.
-Cross-fertalization of ideas vital to development of the Renaissance.
-Educational manuals more widely circulated by printing press.
-E.g. Latin Grammar book - “Ars Grammatica” by Donatus, had numerous printed editions.
-Important for aspects of humanist education like rhetoric.
However, other reasons cuased spread.
Patronage was crucial to spread of ideas.
Many patrons hired artists for far away for their expertise.
-Alfonso of Aragon - King of Aragon (Spain) so spread ideas by hiring artist such as Francesco Laurana from Italy.
-Although many artist trained in Florence, worked all over spread Renaissance culture.
- Leonardo worked for King Francis I of France - Painted Mona Lisa.
‘Both Nicholas V and Julius II were unlike any other Pope in the period c1400-c1600.’ How far do you agree?
Julius II
‘warrior Pope’
Unique in his involvement in warfare, wanted to restore the Papal states.
-Conquered Bologna and Perugia in 1504.
-Joined league of Cambria - anti-Venice.
-Defeated Venice in may 1509.
-Tried to drive French from Italy in second war from 1510-11. (failed)
-Established the Papal forces as dominant military force in the Italian Wars. Managed to restore the Papal states, not managed by his predecessors.
-Confiscated land from Ceaser Borgia.
However, although he was unique in his success in Warfare and the scale, other popes were also involved in warfare:
-Sixtus IV, fought with Naples against Florence.
-Later with Venice against Naples.
-Alexander VI, allied with France, Venice and Holly Roman Empire to push France from Italy (French Invasion 1994-95).
Jullius’s Contribution to patronage:
-Laid groundwork for Vatican Museum.
-Patron to some of the biggest Renaissance names: Raphael, Michelangelo, Bramante.
-Commisioned: painting of Sistine Chapel, St Peters Bassilica, The Frescoes of the four large Raphael rooms (E.g. School of Athens.)
-More than many Popes.
Nichola V contribution to patronage:
-Focused on restoration of Rome.
-Hired Fra Angelico, Gozzoli, and humanist Alberti (very influential in art theory).
-Avid book collector.
-Considered the founder of the Vatican library, increased the collection from 350, to around 1,200 during his reign.
-Patron of Greek humanists. Bessarion and Valla.
However Patronage not unique among Popes:
-Sixtus IV: Commissioned construction of Sistine Chapel.
-Eugenius IV patroned Fra Angelico, and Donatello.
Political Involvement:
-Nicholas V face Porcari conspiracy - defeated it.
-Involvement in Italian wars.
Conclusion:
They are unique in patronage and political involvement, however many popes would be regarded as unique in their actions do to the constant struggle for temporal and spiritual power the Papacy faced in the Renaissance.
Assess how technological change affected warfare in the period 1400-1600.
Development of gunpowder.
-Gun powder commonplace in English and french militaries by 1350.
-Different form of combat, no longer need for highly trained soldiers, musketeer only needed a few weeks of training.
-Cannons used in the 100 year war, notably in the Siege of Orleans 1429 - French successfully defended.
-Artillery particularly used in Sieges - changed the nature of military architecture as the fortified towns did not defend against canons.
-Ottoman Turks used cannons in their successful Siege of Constantinople 1453. Constantinople, known as ‘impenetrable city’ taken for the first time.
Naval warfare developments.
-Battle of Lepanto 1571 - used 6 Venetian 44-gun galleasses (bigger than galleys.)
-Use of canons/guns - greater distruction, loses of 8,000 on both side of Lepanto.
-Growing reliance on galleons, rather that galleys. After Battle of Lepanto 1571.
-with development of cannons naval warfare became longer distance, gun ports were developed for canons.
-Galleons had two tiers of guns carried broadside.
Military architecture
-development of
castle architecture in relation to the increasing use
of gunpowder
-English examples:
creation of batteries at such sites as Dover Castle, Henry VIII. made many changes in the fortifications to adapt them to the use of artillery.
gun-towers at Warwick constructed in the late
15C: King Richard III of England instigated the construction of two gun towers, Bear and Clarence Towers.
However:
The rise of infantry:
-Swiss Phlanax
Military thinking of Macheivelli
How far did the French invasion of 1494 affect the Renaissance?
The beginning of the “wretched years”:
-Soldier Scholar as the consumate of man - Italian ideal, not shared by the French.
-Italians did not mange to defend Naples despite the apparent elite “soldier scholar”.
-According to Gucciardini, contemporaries saw it as an end to the golden era.
-However, Humanist blamed mercenaries for this, saying because they were hired purely for money, did not care + they were not soldier scholar ideal.
Patronage in Florence
-Fall of the Medici’s in Florence (Huge artistic patrons of the Renaissance in Florence), end of 60 years of Medici dominance. (Inexperienced Piero lost power).
-Brought about Savnarola’s Florence, harmed the Renaissance.
-Savnarola’s politics were critical of Renaissance hedonistic luxuries.
-Culminated in the “Bonfire of the Vanities” 1497, burnt many art pieces and humanist books ect.
However only lasted till 1498 - limited impact.
However:
Time 1494-95, only 1 year, so its significance is limited.
Geographically limited:
-Did not effect the Northern Renaissance:
-Tilman Riemenschneider carves the Seated Bishop. 1994.
-Albrecht Dürer paints Portrait of the Artist Holding a Thistle, a self-portrait.
-Pedro Berruguete paints Saint Dominic Presiding over an Auto-da-fe - 1995.
-All prominent Renaissance artists.
Did not affect the topics of art/Italian Renaissance artist continued to paint.
-1495: Sandro Botticelli paints Calumny of Apelles. (Based off works of greek painter Appelles classical themes, two graceful female figures, who are the personifications of Ignorance and Suspicion.)
-1495: Cima da Conegliano paints Madonna and Child.(Religious/traditional themes, not affected by war.)
- Leonardo da Vinci probably draws the Portrait of a Young Fiancée for the Sforziada - in Milan despite Milans involvement in French invasion.
‘The artists of the Flanders and the North of Europe added very little to the achievements of the Italian artists.’ How far do you agree?
Key achievements of Italian Renaissance artists:
Leonardo da Vinci:
- Da Vinci in using painting to express ‘the motions of the
mind’ and ‘the motions of the soul’. portraits that express the character and the mind of a person, e.g. the Mona Lisa, popular for its mysterious expression.
-The High Renaissance began works - da Vinci: The Virgin of the Rocks (1483-1485), and, most notably, The Last Supper (1490s): psychological complexity, perspective for dramatic focus, symbolism, and scientifically accurate detail.
Botticelli: neoplatonic ideas: ‘Primavera’ - Platonic love - (sensual, spiritual, divine) The Graces represent platonic love.
Micaelangelo’s sculpture e.g. “David” - Excavating The Form Of Beauty - not for potraying likeness - represent the motion of beauty in figures - used classical forms to express this.
Italian Renaissance technique:
-revolutionary artistic methods:
-one point linear perspective (The School of Athens, Raphael 1509-1511)
-chiaroscuro (light and dark - creates volume) Virgin of the Rocks - da Vinci (1483-1486)
-new genres: frontal portraiture, self-portraiture, and landscape.
Northern Renaissance Achievements:
Key artists from Flanders and the North:
Jan van Eyck: originating a style of painting characterised by minutely realistic depictions of surface effects and natural light. detailed realism. - focus on every day life.
-Albrecht Dürer:
revolutionized printmaking, elevating it to the level of an independent art form. (e.g. young Hare 1502)
-Hieronymus Bosch:
pessimistic fantastical style - wide influence on northern art 16th century. ighly individualistic painter with deep insight into humanity’s desires and deepest fears. e.g. The Garden of Earthly Delights, 1515 - earthly paradise with the creation of woman, the first temptation, and the Fall. - religious symbolism.
Compare:
technique, subject matter, cultural context, and innovation.
Italian and Northern Artistic Techniques:
Italian:
impact of perspective and classical ideals in Italian art:
-Perspective: rule discovered by Brunelleschi, used by leonardo in last supper - to depict paradise in the distance - creates idea only get there through jesus.
-Classical ideals: Paganism, Botticelli - Birth of Venus - portrays Venus a pagan god.
-“david” demonstrates interest in classical aestheticsm - figure’s idealized form and contrapposto pose, reminiscent of ancient Greek sculptures.
Northern art:
-oil painting: straight lines, depth, and intricate details, meant artist could depict things more naturalistic way. e.g. The Triumph of Death: Pieter Bruegel.
-Detailed realism: in depiction of nature and domestic interiors. E.g. Albert durers The Hare - individual hairs on animal.
Subject Matter and Cultural Context:
Northern Renaissance: Realistic every day life.
Italian Renaisssance: Classical themes, humanism ect.
