Missed Content To Review Flashcards
1
Q
phases of the menstrual cycle
A
follicular phase
ovulation
luteal phase
2
Q
follicular phase
A
FSH & LH secreted by anterior pituitary gland
FSH peaks –> LH surge
estrogen increase
3
Q
ovulation
A
LH surge –> ovarian follicle matures –> oocyte released
4
Q
luteal phase
A
FSH & LH cause follicle to turn into corpus luteum (produce progesterone)
progesterone causes thickening of endometrium (ready for implantation)
FSH & LH DROP
5
Q
Progesterone & Estrogen levels if fertilization does not occur
A
sharply decline due to corpus luteum degeneration
(if pregnant, levels remain high)
6
Q
epithelial tissue: precursor, function, examples
A
precursor: endoderm, mesoderm, & ectoderm
function: lines surfaces, protection, absorption, filtration, secretion
examples: skin, lining of organs
7
Q
muscle tissue: precursor, function, examples
A
precursor: mesoderm
function: voluntary & involuntary movement
examples: skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle
8
Q
connective tissue: precursor, function, examples
A
precursor: mesoderm
function: support/protect, attachment of tissues, insulation, transport
examples: bone, blood, fat, tendons/ligaments, cartilage
9
Q
nervous tissue: precursor, function, examples
A
precursor: ectoderm
function: transmission/reception of electrical signals, response to stimuli
examples: brain, spinal cord, nerves
10
Q
what part of transcription is unique to eukaryotes?
A
spliceosome-mediated intron splicing
11
Q
Ascribed vs achieved status
A
Ascribed = social position assigned by society (48 years old, female, black)
Achieved status = social position earned through merit (doctor, friend, volunteer)
12
Q
Functionalism
A
Society = an organism & each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis)
Macro perspective, Durkheim, Parsons
13
Q
Conflict (sociological approach) Theory
A
Society = struggle for limited resources; inequality based on social class
Macro level, Marx & Webber
14
Q
Social constructionism
A
Social actors define what is real;
ideas (such as knowledge about health and disease) are created through historical processes that are socially defined and culturally distinct
Macro or micro
15
Q
Symbolic interactionism
A
Meaning and value attached to symbols; individual interactions based on these symbols (explains in terms of meaning that they hold when people interact with one another)
Micro level; Cooley & Herbert Mead
16
Q
Rational choice / social exchange
A
Individual behaviors and interactions attempt to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost
Micro level
17
Q
Feminist perspective
A
Examines gender inequality in society
Macro or micro level
18
Q
Looking glass self
A
Charles Cooley
Interactions serves as a mirror (looking glass) where the way an individual is treated/perceived by others is reflected in how they perceive themself
Identity develops through an individuals interpretation of what others think and feel about them
19
Q
Representativeness heuristic
A
When encountering a new situation, individuals tend to rely on mental representations (of people, events) when drawing conclusions
20
Q
Types of membership
A
Normative - based on shared goals or values
Utilitarian - membership is driven by compensation (money or diploma/certification)
Coercive - not freely chosen and/or maintained
21
Q
Role strain
A
Competing expectations within a single role create tension
Ex: a student struggles to find enough time to complete homework (expectation 1) and attend student government meetings (expectation 2)
22
Q
Role conflict
A
Competing expectations for two or more roles create tension
Ex: a student (role 1) who is employed part time (part 2) struggles to find enough time to complete homework and work late hours
23
Q
Role exit
A
Individual disengages from a social role, often replacing it with a new social role
Ex: a college student (old role) graduates and begins full time employment (new role)
24
Q
Immigration & Birth Rate ____ population size
A
Increase
25
Emigration & death rate ______ population size
Decrease
26
Types of population pyramids (and their shapes)
Expanding - triangle
Stationary - half oval
Contracting - half oval with curves toward x axis
27
Expanding population pyramid
Very high birth rate
High, but dropping death rate
Short life expectancy
Increasing population size
28
Stationary population pyramid
Low birth rate
Low death rate
Long life expectancy
Population size stable
29
Contracting population pyramid
Very low birth rate
Low death rate
Long life expectancy
Decreasing population size
30
Common sense theory
Stimulus
Subjective experience (fear)
Body response (arousal)
“My heart is pounding because I am afraid”
31
James-Lange Theory
Stimulus
Body response (arousal)
Subjective experience (fear)
“I am afraid because my heart is pounding”
32
Canon-Bard Theory
Stimulus
Body response (arousal) & subjective experience (fear)
“My heart is pounding and the wolf makes me feel afraid”
33
Schachter-Singer theory
Stimulus
Body response (arousal)
Interpretation
Subjective experience (fear)
“My pounding heart signifies fear because I have appraised the situation as dangerous”
34
Universal emotions
Happiness
Sadness
Fear
Anger
Disgust
Surprise
35
Components of human emotion
Cognitive, behavioral, and physiological
36
Cognitive component of human emotion
Mental processes accompanying an emotion and involved in appraisal of the situation
- thoughts, beliefs, expectations, rationalization
37
Behavioral component of emotion
Immediate outward reaction to an emotion that is involuntary and automatic
Ex: Smiling, gasping
38
physiological component of emotion
Bodily processes that accompany an emotion
Ex: heart rate changes, respiration rate changes, sweating
39
what are the codons and (any) anticodons at the beginning and end of translation of an mRNA molecule?
start: AUG --> UAC
stop codons: UGA, UAA, UAG (do not get translated, so 3 right before stop)
40
what forms mitotic spindles
microtubules
41
control variable
kept constant by researcher to prevent additional factors from affecting experimental results
42
independent variable
unaffected by other experimental factors and manipulated by researcher
(amount of sunlight each seed is exposed to)
43
dependent variable
measured outcome affected by change in independent variable
(number of seeds that grow into plants)
44
p value < 0.05 meaning
*statistically significant result
5% or lower probability that observed result is due to chance alone
45
p value > 0.05 meaning
not generally statistically significant
greater than 5% probability that observed result is due to chance alone
46
representativeness heuristic
individuals tend to compare things to an existing mental prototype when trying to decide the likeliness of something
when encountering a new situation, individuals tend to rely on mental representations of people/events when drawing conclusions
47
normative membership
membership is based on shared goals or values
48
utilitarian membership
membership is driven by compensation (money or certification/diplomas)
49
coercive membership
membership is not freely chosen/maintained
50
EEG
electrodes placed on scalp and connected to amplifier
measures electrical signals of the cortex below the skull
51
MEG
helmet like device placed over the head
measures magnetic fields produced by electrical brain activity
52
PET
scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog
measures glucose metabolism in the brain
53
fMRI
scanner detects the differential properties of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin
measures blood oxygenation in the brain
54
in group
group to which an individual identifies & belongs
other in-group members viewed favorably
55
out-group
group to which an individual does not identify or belong
out group members viewed unfavorably
56
reference group
comparison group to which an individual compares self
individual may or may not belong to this group
57
primary group
group of individuals who are emotionally close
smaller in size, high degree of interaction (family)
58
secondary group
group of individuals who come together to accomplish something
larger in size, more impersonal (coworkers)
59
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
pre-chronic stress homeostasis
stage 1 - alarm (decreased resistance to stress)
stage 2 - resistance (increased resistance to stress, hyper adrenal function)
stage 3 - exhaustion (decreased resistance to stress)
60
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
attempts to change negative thoughts/beliefs (cognitions) and maladaptive behaviors
- desensitization, self talk, etc used to replace destructive thoughts/behaviors with healthy ones
61
psychoanalytic therapy ("talk therapy")
attempts to uncover how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shape behaviors
- free association, dream analysis, etc used to analyze unconscious
62
humanistic therapy (person centered therapy)
attempts to empower individual to move toward self actualization
- unconditional positive regard and empathy used to encourage one to reach full potential
63
internal validity describes
causality
if a change in the IV is really causing a change in the DV
64
major threats to internal validity
confounding variables
selection bias
maturation
repeated testing
regression toward the mean
65
internal validity ______ as experiment becomes more tightly controlled and _________ as experiment becomes more like the real world
increases; decreases
66
external validity describes
generalizability
if the observed relationship applies outside the experiment to another situation or other people
67
major threats to external validity
artificial research environment
non-representative sample
measurement effects
68
external validity ______ as experiment becomes more tightly controlled and _________ as experiment becomes more like the real world
decreases; increases
69
absolute threshold
intensity value at which an individual is able to detect the stimulus 50% of the time
70
habituation
decreased response to a stimulus over time (no longer noticing a sweater feels scratchy after wearing it for a few minutes)
71
dishabituation
a renewed response to a previously habituated stimulus (after taking off the sweater and then putting it back on, it feels scratchy again)
72
sensitization
increased response to a stimulus over time (sweater's scratchiness becomes more irritating until it is unbearable)
73
desensitization
decreased response to a previously sensitized stimulus over time (irritation from previously unbearable scratchiness diminishes over time)
74
confirmation bias - belief "confirmed"
ambiguous evidence interpreted as support
facts supporting belief
outweighs refuting belief coming from facts that refute the belief
75
McDonaldization - Realms of Effects
efficiency, calculability, predictability, control
76
McDonaldization - Efficiency
intends to increase optimization
unintentionally decreases individuality
- going to a minute clinic for specific concerns
77
McDonaldization - Calculability
increases quantity
unintentionally decreases quality
- increased number of patients can be seen
78
McDonaldization - Predictability
increases uniformity & standardization
unintentionally decreases uniqueness
- standardized patient checklists make appointments uniform
79
McDonaldization - Control
increases automation
unintentionally decreases skilled workforce
- electronic patient portals allow patients to see test results
80
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
linguistic relativity
posits that language influences our perception and cognition
(color perception changes for two subjects whose native languages have different number of color names)
81
objects seen in the left hemifield are processed in the _____________, whereas objects seen in the right hemifield are processed in the ____________
right primary visual cortex
left primary visual cortex
(opposite sides)
82
Where are cones concentrated? What are they sensitive to?
the fovea (central point of the retina)
colors
83
Where are rods located? What are they sensitive to?
in the periphery of the retina
responsible for night vision because they are sensitive to low levels of light
84
Parvo pathway
"what" pathway - ventral (inferior temporal) pathway
form and color
85
Magno pathway
"where" pathway - dorsal (parietal pathway)
depth and motion
86
Randomized Controlled Trial
experimental
- random allocation into treatment & placebo groups
- can determine efficacy of the intervention
87
nonrandomized design
experimental
- nonrandom allocation into treatment and placebo groups
- can determine efficacy of the intervention
88
longitudinal study
observational study
- data gathered at multiple time points
- can assess risk factors or outcomes
89
cross sectional study
observational study
- data gathered at one point in time
- can determine prevalence of an outcome in a population
90
case-control study
observational study
- data gathered from individuals with the condition of interest (cases) and compared to individuals without the condition (controls)
91
case study
observational study
- detailed information gathered about one individual (or a small group of individuals)
92
Meta-Analysis study
review study
- data from multiple studies are statisically combined and analyzed
93
defining features of bureaucracies
division of labor
hierarchical organization
standardization
impersonal
94
division of labor
specialized employees increase efficiency
95
hierarchical organization
centralized authority and clear chain of command
96
standardization
formal procedures and rules increase uniformity and unity
97
impersonal
same impersonal criteria applied to all increase equality
98
positive reinforcement
positive (adds stimulus)
reinforcement (encourages behavior)
desirable stimulus added to encourage behavior (toddler gets candy for using the toilet)
99
positive punishment
positive (adds stimulus)
punishment (discourages behavior)
undesirable stimulus added to discourage behavior (toddler gets spanked for running into the street)
100
negative reinforcement
negative (takes away stimulus)
reinforcement (encourages behavior)
undesirable stimulus taken away to encourage behavior (teenager doesn't have to do chores after getting all A's)
101
negative punishment
negative (takes away stimulus)
punishment (discourages behavior)
desirable stimulus taken away to discourage behavior (teenager gets grounded for getting bad grades)
102
fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
fixed (consistent) ratio (based on responses)
reinforcement after consistent number of behaviors
rapid response rate, short pause after reinforcement
103
fixed interval reinforcement schedule
fixed (consistent) interval (based on time)
reinforcement after consistent amount of time passes
slower response rate after reinforcement, faster response rate right before
104
variable ratio reinforcement schedule
variable (inconsistent) ratio (based on responses)
reinforcement after inconsistent number of behaviors
rapid, steady response rate, most resistant to extinction
105
variable interval reinforcement schedule
variable (inconsistent) interval (based on time)
reinforcement after inconsistent amount of time passes
slow, steady response rate, resistance to extinction
106
primary reinforcer
primary (innate) reinforcer (encourages behavior)
innately desirable reward (food, praise)
107
primary punisher
primary (innate) punisher (discourages behavior)
innately undesirable consequence (spanking, electric shock)
108
secondary reinforcer
secondary (learned) reinforcer (encourages behavior)
learned reward (money, good grades)
109
secondary punisher
secondary (learned) punisher (discourages behavior)
learned consequence (bad grades, speeding ticket)
110
taste aversions are what kind of endurance?
long-enduring associations
111
autocommunication
occurs when a message sender is also the receiver
ex: dolphins echolocate by perceiving how the click sounds they sound out come back to them
***not the same as predator warning calls***
112
Mechanoreceptor
detects movement
stimuli - sound waves, touch
ex: hair cells in the ear
113
Chemoreceptor
detects chemicals
stimuli - molecules, solutes
ex: taste buds (tongue)
114
Thermoreceptor
detects temperature
stimuli - heat, cold
ex: skin
115
photoreceptor
detects light waves
stimuli - visible light
ex: rods, cones (retina)
116
Piaget's theory of Cognitive Development
sensorimotor
pre-operational
concrete operational
formal operational
117
sensorimotor stage
<2
- experiencing the environment via senses and actions
- hallmark: object permanence, stranger anxiety
118
preoperational stage
~2-7
- representing real things with words and images
- hallmark: pretend play, egocentrism, language development
119
concrete operational stage
~7-11
- thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies, performing arithmetic
- hallmark: conservation, mathematical transformation
120
formal operational stage
> 12
- thinking about hypothetical scenarios, grasping abstract thoughts
- hallmark: abstract logic, moral reasoning develops
121
place theory
states that specific wavelength frequencies generate vibrations at specific loci on the basilar membrane of the cochlea
- hair cells located at the base of the basilar membrane are activated by high frequency sounds
- hair cells located at the apex of the basilar membrane are activated by low frequency sounds
122
operant conditioning
occurs when the likelihood of repeating a behavior is influenced by the outcome of that behavior
123
classical conditioning
occurs when a stimulus that did not previously elicit a meaningful response takes on the properties of a biologically arousing stimulus after being paired
124
observational learning
occurs as a result of watching others engage in a behavior
125
steps of operant conditioning
1. increase motivational state (deprive of desirable stimulus)
2. shaping (rewarding successive approximations of desirable behavior)
3. continuous reinforcement (rewarding desirable behavior every time it occurs)
126
fluid intelligence
ability to apply logic and creative thinking to new situations
127
crystallized intelligence
ability to apply facts and acquired knowledge to situations
128
selective attention
ability to focus on one stimulus or task despite distractions
129
divided attention
ability to attend to two or more tasks or stimuli simultaneously
130
Recall memory
retrieval of information from memory
(fill in the blank tests)
without a prompt = free recall
with prompt = cued recall
131
Recognition memory
identification of previously learned information/target (multiple choice tests)
132
Relearning memory
re-encoding of information learned but forgotten (relearning algebra as an adult)
133
episodic memory examples
buying first car, first day of college
declines with age, autobiographical information
134
flashbulb memory examples
where one was when the 9/11 terrorist attacks were announced
declines with age
135
source memory examples
what news source reported the story, who announced the information
declines with age
136
semantic memory examples
names of people, colors, vocabulary
stable with aging
137
procedural memory examples
riding a bike, driving a car, serving a tennis ball
stable with aging
138
proactive vs retroactive inference
proactive (remembers the first person met of two people)
retroactive (remembers the second person met of two people)
139
myoglobin
substance that holds oxygen in muscles and organs
140
what vessels control blood pressure?
arterioles
141
reflex arc pathway
stimulus --> sensory neuron --> motor neuron --> reflex muscle movement
142
neuromuscular junction
area where neuron sends signal to muscle
143
defining characters of eukaryotic cells
membrane bound nucleus
membrane bound organelles
undergo mitosis resulting in two daughter cells with same number and kind of chromosomes
144
when do the centromeres split in mitosis & meiosis?
mitosis - anaphase
meiosis - anaphase II
145
increased GFR does what to urine output
increase GFR (glomuler filtration rate) = increased urine output
146
high blood pressure & urine output
higher blood pressure increases urine output
147
what are two factors that normally determine blood pressure?
cardiac output
resistance to blood flow
148
vasoconstriction is important in what situation? vasodilation is important in what situation?
vasoconstriction - restricting blood flow to an organ/hemorrhage
vasodilation - increasing blood flow to muscles during exercise
149
role of albumin
protein that maintains osmotic pressure & keeps fluids from leaking out of bloodstream
made by the liver
increased serum albumin = higher BP
150
how does the liver regenerate?
mitosis
151
what metabolic processes do eukaryotes and prokaryotes share?
glycolysis, fermentation, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain
152
osteoblast activity with PTH, Calcitonin, Calcitriol increase
osteoblasts will
PTH: decreases
Calcitonin: increases
Calcitriol: decrease
153
osteoclast activity with PTH, Calcitonin, Calcitriol increase
osteoclasts will
PTH: increases
Calcitonin: decreases
calcitriol: increases
154
Intestinal/Renal Calcium Absorption with PTH, Calcitonin, Calcitriol increases
intestinal/renal calcium absorption will:
PTH: increase
Calcitonin: decrease
Calcitriol: increase
155
blood calcium levels with PTH, Calcitonin, calcitriol increases
blood calcium will
PTH: increase
calcitonin: decrease
calcitriol: increase
156
parathyroid hormone restores homeostasis in what context of calcium?
when blood calcium levels are low, PTH increases osteoclast activity to increase blood plasma calcium levels
157
what is a key determining factor of being considered a species?
ability to successfully interbreed and produce offspring
consisting of similar individuals
158
aldosterone deficiency would cause what changes in blood pressure and volume? why?
decrease in volume, decrease in pressure
aldosterone stimulates Na+ (water follows sodium) reabsorption by the kidneys - less reabsorption by kidneys = more sodium & water excreted in the urine
159
where does transcription occur? translation?
nucleus; cytoplasm
160
the ectoderm gives rise to
epidermis & its derivatives
epithelium of mouth and anus
cornea/lens of eye
nervous system (including brain)
sensory receptors of skin
adrenal medulla
tooth enamel
epithelium of pineal and pituitary glands
161
the mesoderm gives rise to
notochord
skeletal system
muscular layer of stomach/intestine
excretory system
circulatory/lymphatic system
reproductive system (NOT germ cells)
dermis
lining of body cavity
adrenal cortex
162
the endoderm gives rise to
epithelium of digestive tract
epithelium of respiratory system
lining of urethra, bladder, and reproductive system
liver
pancreas
thymus
thyroid & parathyroid glands
163
what metabolic pathways are anaerobic?
glycolysis
fermentation
164
what is the size difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomal subunits?
eukaryotes: 80S (40S & 60S subunits)
prokaryotes: 70S (30S & 40S subunits)
165
equal fitness of genotypes means
neither genotype is being selected FOR or AGAINST
166
describe how a neuromuscular junction forms (and what happens if a signal is propagated through it)
motor neuron attaches to myocyte at a motor end plate
action potential of neuron releases Ach into synaptic cleft
Ach binds membrane receptors on motor end plate, activating ion channels and triggering muscle movement
167
what muscles of the body contain striated muscle?
skeletal and cardiac muscle
168
average body temperature in celcius and fahrenheit
celcius - 37˙C
fahrenheit - 98.6˙F
169
vasodilation can also be referred to as
radiation
170
what is the role of the gallbladder?
to store and concentrate bile, then release it to the small intestine to digest and absorb fats
171
histones package dna into ______ that are ______ nm in size
nucleosome complexes
30 nm
172
how can a physician tell from an x-ray that a child is still growing?
presence of growth plates - cartilaginous areas in the long bones
ossification (bone growth) - converting cartilage to bone
173
how are we able to sweat if the epidermis, covered in keratin and oil, is relatively impermeable to water?
the presence of sweat glands
174
actor-observer bias
actor - attribute it to external causes
observer - attribute someone else's mistake or event to their own internal causes
(blaming the sidewalk when self trips vs blaming another person when they trip)
175
central route vs peripheral route of persuasion
central route - based on the content itself (disease itself)
peripheral route - based on another factor (prestige of the physician)
176
diathesis stress model
predisposition and stress can lead to mental disorder or state
177
absorption of UV light by organic molecules ***always*** results in what?
excitation of bound electrons
| can lead to bond breaking, but ALWAYS excitation of bound electrons
178
why must a person either lean forward or push their feet back to stand up out of a chair?
to keep the body in equilibrium while rising
feet = pivot point, want to move the pivot point in line with center of mass to estaeblish rotational equilibrium
179
what is a coordinate covalent bond?
a covalent bond in which the electrons came from one atm (ammonia and copper)
180
electronegativity differences in ionic vs covalent bonds
covalent bonds = smaller electronegativity differences
ionic bonds = larger electronegativity differences
181
coordination number
number of atoms, molecules, or ions bonded to a central atom (NH4 has coordination number of 4)
182
what cell types are the most proliferative?
stem cells
epithelial tissue of internal organs (like GI tract)
skin cells
endothelium of blood vessels
smooth muscle cells
183
what metabolic pathways produce ATP?
glycolysis
citric acid cycle
oxidative phosphorylation
electron transport chain
beta oxidation
fermentation
184
the electron transport chain ________ reactions
couples
185
inhibition of phosphofructokinase-1 by ATP is what kind of regulation?
feedback inhibition
allosteric regulation
186
proteins that act in the nucleus typically have ?
a nuclear localization sequence
187
what are some common covalent modifications?
phosphorylation (and dephosphorylation)
acetylation
ubiquitination
188
Ubiquitination
marking of a protein for degradation by a proteosome
189
Western Blot
used to detect post-translational modifications in proteins
190
Southern Blot
detects specific DNA sequences (using restriction enzymes)
191
Northern Blot
separates RNA sequences
192
RT-PCR
analyzes changes in protein expression at the transcriptional level
193
vasopressin increases the water permeability of what structure?
the collecting ducts
194
prion
misfolded variants of a protein that can cause misfolding when interacting with normally folded variants of the same protein
195
proteins are translated from __ terminus to __ terminus
N to C
196
how long does it take sperm to develop? how long does it take eggs to develop?
sperm: at puberty, takes 3 months
eggs: prior to birth until after fertilization
197
microtubules come from
the centrosome
198
T cells require what to perform immune system functions?
viral antigens
199
where do sperm become motile and capable of fertilization?
epididymis
200
Reducing SDS Page vs Nonreducing SDS Page vs Native SDS Page
REDUCING: using DDT, it reduces disulfide bonds and breaks quaternary structure
NONREDUCING: disulfide bonds intact, breaks quaternary structure
NATIVE: disulfide bonds intact, quaternary structure intact, separates proteins by mass, charge and polarity
201
what region of the retina has the highest visual acuity?
fovea (most cones)
202
What historical factor primarily accounts for the projected increase in the population of 65+ year olds?
increase in fertility rate after WWII
203
dependency ratio
number of people below the age of 14 and above the age of 65 that are not part of the workforce compared to the people ages 14-65 that are part of the workforce
204
operant conditioning
a form of learning which occurs when changes in behavior occur due to previously experienced outcomes for that behavior. Behaviors which are rewarded increase in frequency
205
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute other people’s behavior to internal, stable traits, rather than situational factors
206
Freud psychosexual development
oral (0-1)
anal (1-3)
phallic (3-6)
latency (7-11)
207
individual version of groupthink
confirmation bias
208
right brain controls more ____
left brain controls more ____
creative processes
logical processes
209
interference
information in memory interferes with the encoding, consolidation, or retrieval of other information
- study new material, any new information introduced between the initial learning (i.e., encoding) and retrieval, such as viewing a movie, will interfere with memory consolidation
210
what type of intelligence involves delaying gratification in pursuit of long term rewards?
emotional intelligence
211
CBT
addresses maladaptive behaviors through behavior therapy to systematically modify a person’s behavior - then sessions designed to foster cognitive change through self-assessments
212
213
Tautomerism
migration of a hydrogen atom from an α-carbon atom to an oxygen atom - hybridization of the α-carbon atom and oxygen atom change during the process
214
Alpha vs beta glucose
Alpha glucose: C1 hydroxyl is pointed down
Beta glucose: C1 hydroxyl is pointed up
215
group polarization
process that affects attitudes towards a topic
when people who agree on a topic are allowed to discuss, they become more polarized in their opinion
216
uncontrollable exposure to an aversive stimulus results in ______________
learned helplessness
217
sleep stages and brain waves associated with them
NREM1 - theta waves
NREM2 - theta waves
NREM3 - delta waves (deep sleep)
REM - resembles consciousness, where dreaming occurs
218
the humanistic perspective explains behavior through
self concept and incongruence
(girl normalizes not doing her homework bc her friends dont do it to minimize incongruence between her ideal self and her actual self)
219
changes in brain size as a function of environmental influences is an example of
neural plasticity
220
encoding specificity
enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning
221
habituation
loss of response to a repeating stimulus
222
binocular depth cues
convergence and retinal disparity
223
race vs ethnicity
ethnicity classifies by culture
race classified by physical characteristics
224
social stigma
calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval - usually associated with an attribute that is devalued
225
anomie
alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak, associated with rapid social change
226
rational choice perspective
theoretical framework that assumes people are rational beings who make decisions based on a cost-benefit analysis to achieve their goals
227
demographic transition
suggests that economic changes, specifically industrialization, affect the relationship between the fertility and mortality rates in a society
228
dramaturgical approach to social interaction
uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions - When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience
229
there are issues with ______ if there is a variable that would better assess the phenomenon
validity
230
ethnographic research
involves observing social interactions in real social settings
231
atomic number
number of protons
232
mass number
number of protons and neutrons
233
changes in frequency and wavelength are dependent on
variation in speed
234
reflected angle when surfaces are parallel
light ray is reflected perfectly and exits medium at the same angle (θ = θ')
235
a charged particle does what in an electric field?
accelerates
236
kinetic vs thermodynamic product
kinetic = fastest to form (lowest transition state)
thermodynamic = most stable product, no matter activation energy or time it takes
"thermodynamic mixture" = thermodynamic control = higher yield product is thermodynamic
237
doppler effect
move closer to frequency emission = higher frequency (pushing sound waves together)
move farther from frequency emission = lower frequency
238
what property would be useful to indicate relative thermodynamic stability?
heat of combustion (boiling point = because of INTERmolecular forces, not INTRAmolecular)
239
if labeling a molecule to track it, you would want to label it at what point?
a point where the molecule does not interact with anything else (carbon in water solvent)
240
porphyrin is composed of
4 pyrroles (5 membered rings containing one nitrogen atom)
241
fast twitch muscle fibers have a
greater calcium pumping capacity
242
convergent evolution
organisms that aren't closely related evolve similar features or behaviours, often as solutions to the same problems
(bird and butterfly both have wings to fly in their environments but no common ancestors)
243
proteases are what kind of enzyme?
hydrolases
244
genes encoded on the same operon will share
the same promoter and mRNA fragment
245
histone acetylation has what affect on transcription?
activates transcription by reducing attractive forces between histone proteins, opening it up
246
DNA methylation has what effect on transcription?
decreases transcription because of steric hindrance of methylation on A & C nucleotides
247
restriction enzymes cut
palindromic sequences
248
parent specific transmission of genes is due to
gene imprinting (imprinting gene from one parent, other parent gene gets expressed)
249
RNA viruses replicate themselves by
inserting themselves into host genomes and transcribe their RNA using REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE
250
what portion of the nephron filters circulating proteins?
glomerulus
251
enzymes are typically most active at what temperature?
body temperature (37˚C)
252
what kind of cells secrete mucus?
Goblet cells (epithelial cell)
253
order that filtrate passes through nephron
Bowman’s capsule → proximal tubule → loop of Henle → distal tubule → collecting duct
254
neuroticism
personality trait that describes a tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety, anger, guilt, and depression
255
emotional arousal has what effect on attention?
emotional arousal causes a restriction on focus of attention (focus attention on a central point)
256
what part of the eye is responsible for color vision?
cones in the retina
257
REM rebound
the body will attempt to make up for lost REM (interrupt REM night before = more REM the next night)
258
a person's socioeconomic status is usually determined by their
income, occupational prestige, wealth, and educational attainment
259
extinction
the loss of behavior associated with operant conditioning when reinforcement is removed
260
associative learning refers to
operant and classical conditioning
261
NMDA receptors are
glutamate receptors
262
self verification
refers to the tendency to seek out (and agree with) information that is consistent with one’s self-concept
263
latent vs manifest function
manifest - intended outcome
latent - unintended outcome (not explicitly acknowledged)
264
example of sensory interaction
some people cannot balance on one foot with their eyes closed, they have to open their eyes to do so
265
ionic substances are ________ in polar substances
soluble
266
if equilibrium shifts to the right to produce more ionized products, the degree of ionization will
be greater
267
why does water not need to be included in the equilibrium expressions?
the concentration of water stays relatively constant
268
empirical formula
ratio of molecules in a compound
(H2O2 is HO)
269
the reducing agent ________ electrons
donates
270
the focal length of a mirror only depends on
the radius of the curvature
271
why does light slow down when it enters a denser medium?
As light moves in a medium, it encounters atoms of which the medium is made up of. Upon its interaction, light is being absorbed by the atoms and is then re-emitted
272
what circuit elements store energy?
capacitor and batteries
given by equation .5CVc^2
273
path of sperm cells for fertilization
epididymis
vas deferens
urethra
vagina
cervix
uterus
fallopian tube
274
complete pathway of a neural impulse during knee jerk reaction
sensory neuron, motor neuron
275
a molecule with high electron affinity will do what with an electron
readily accept it (get reduced)
276
in a sarcomere, what does NOT change length?
myosin filaments
277
the appendix is in close contact with
the colon
278
what is shadowing in auditory tests in psychology?
repeating the stimulus word for word in one ear while hearing stimuli in both ears
279
why is continuous reinforcement best for subjects during the acquisition phase of operant conditioning?
the schedule unambiguously informs the subject which behavior is correct
280
instinctual drift
phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors
281
primary agents of socialization
family, school, peers, media
282
front stage self
acting a certain way in front of an audience knowing you are subject to judgement from them in order to influence their perception of you
283
back stage self
acting a different way than front stage self when there is no audience, but just a group of people you are interacting with
284
proximal vs distal stimulus
distal stimulus = physical stimulus
proximal stimulus = stimulus image that falls on the retina
285
What methodology will best show how perceptual illusions impact our judgments of the nature of stimuli?
psychophysical discrimination testing
286
higher positive reduction potential means:
larger negative reduction potential means:
higher + = more easily reduced, better oxidizing agent (more likely to gain electrons)
larger - = more easily oxidized, better reducing agent (more likely to lose electrons)
287
basic ions are more soluble in ______ solution
acidic
288
what increases the rate of an electrolytic cell?
increasing the current
289
positive hydropathy index indicates that amino acids are ________
hydrophobic (located in the transmembrane region in the plasma membrane)
290
Michaelis Menten dependent variable
initial velocity
291
what event occurs when a GPCR is activated?
the alpha subunit binds GTP
292
damage to nearby cells caused by lysis is due to
necrosis
293
what type of transport is the Na+ K+ ATPase?
active transport
294
what amino acid has the highest isoelectric focusing point?
Arginine (most basic)
295
which amino acids can form hydrogen bonds?
serine, threonine, tyrosine, glutamine, asparagine
296
specific activity
the enzyme units per milligram of total protein in solution
297
surfactant
reduce the surface tension of a liquid (ex: pulmonary surfactant decreases surface tension of liquid and total force resisting expansion, making it easier to breathe)
298
relative ionization energies of orbitals
s > p > d > f
(closer to nucleus = higher ionization energy)
299
photos emitted from what energy levels will produce visible light?
anything above n=3 to n=2
300
electrons with the most ___ character have the highest energy
s
301
sn1 preferences
3˚ alkyl halide > 2˚ > 1˚
stability of carbocation !
302
what group 17 acid is NOT a strong acid?
HF (due to unusually high degree of covalent bonding to hydrogen)
303
phosphoric vs phosphorous acid
phosphoric = H3PO4
phosphorous = H3PO3
304
transduction
form of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria in which bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) transmit genomic material
305
what cell type is least likely to be found in the G0 phase?
epithelial cells
constantly reproducing, often not in cell growth arrest phase
306
what is the role of malonyl CoA in the context of beta oxidation?
it prevents beta oxidation of newly synthesized fatty acids
307
what solvents do sn1 and sn2 prefer?
sn1: polar protic (H2O, ROH)
sn2: polar aprotic (acetone)
308
what is the blood brain barrier primarily composed of?
endothelial cells with tight junctions
309
unconditioned stimulus
stimulus that triggers a natural response
(shock automatically triggers fear)
310
unconditioned response
automatic response
response that naturally occurs (fear)
311
conditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus that illicits a response over time
312
conditioned response
behavior that is learned from a neutral stimulus pairing
313
self serving bias
attribute good outcomes with internal factors and bad outcomes with external factors
314
what kind of neurons are motor neurons, sensory neurons, and interneurons?
motor neurons = efferent
sensory neurons = afferent
interneurons = neither
315
ratio level measurement vs interval/ordinal level measurement
ratio level - can be 0
interval/ordinal - scale that cannot be 0
316
wernicke's vs broca's aphasia
wernicke's = trouble comprehending words (difficulty connecting meaning to language)
broca's = trouble producing words
317
moderating vs mediating variable
moderating variable = changes the strength between variables (higher for one gender)
mediating variable = explains why the IV affects the DV
318
self efficacy vs self esteem
self esteem = respect and self worth of oneself
self efficacy = how competent one believes they are to complete a task
319
confabulation
symptom of Korsakoff's syndrome
making up memories to fill in the gaps and believing those memories are true
320
the hippocampus is responsible for
memory
321
phosphatase vs phosphorylase
phosphatase dephosphorylates
phosphorylase phosphorylates
322
actin is composed of
microfilaments
323
what amino acids can be phosphorylated?
serine, threonine, tyrosine (OH)
324
if you want to observe something to see if it binds to something else, what conditions should you run gel electrophoresis under?
NATIVE because youre testing if it binds to something, AKA DOING ITS JOB, AKA its native state
325
hill coefficient value meanings
above 1 = positive cooperativity
below 1 = negative cooperativity
~ 1 = independent
326
what is the major component of the bacterial cell wall?
peptidoglycan
327
the ganglia of the SNS and the ganglia of the PNS differ in the sense that
the ganglia of the SNS are interconnected, while the ganglia of the PNS are not interconnected
328
what is the direction of alpha, beta, and gamma rays in the presence of an external magnetic field?
gamma rays travel straight
alpha and beta particles are bent but travel in opposite directions
329
what happens the concentration of a solute exceeds its solubility limit?
a precipitate forms
330
the speed of sound is greatest in what medium?
solid (strong IMF and proximity of molecules)
331
what is NOT included in the equilibrium expression?
solids and liquids
332
is a long chain fatty acid or short chain fatty acid more soluble in water?
short chain
333
how many hydrogen bonds are there in an AT base pair and a GC base pair
AT = 2
GC = 3
334
As blood passes through actively contracting skeletal muscle tissue, the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen in the muscle tissue
decreases as pH decreases
335
Henry's Law
C=kP
c = concentration
k = henrys constant
P = partial pressure
336
what happens to the inactive X chromosome in mammalian females?
it is one of the very last to get replicated in order to avoid duplicates
337
what controls the flow of digestive juices into the small intestine?
hepatopancreatic sphincter
338
a lower blood osmolarity (/a higher blood volume) indicates what?
the body is acting to conserve water
339
cardiac output =
stroke volume * heart rate
340
when oxygen is running low, especially during exercise, what does the body do?
use lactic acid fermentation to regenerate NAD+ to go into glycolysis
341
reverse transcriptase converts
RNA to DNA
342
microglia
phagocytotic innate immune cells specific to the brain
- initiate immune response in meningitis
343
the blood brain barrier has what kind of junctions?
tight junctions
344
what can cause hyperpolarization
influx of Cl- ions
efflux of K+ ions
345
amber codon
UAG (stop codon)
346
nondisjunction
failure of chromosomes to separate
347
discriminating stimuli
when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar
348
behaviorism
holds that only actual outcomes are determinant of behavior
349
relationship between extrinsic motivation and external motivation
extrinsic = broader term, includes external motivation
350
role of the retina
detect light rays and convert them into a signal that the brain can use
351
glass escalator
structural advantage that males possess in female-dominated occupations that tend to enhance their careers
352
cultural capital
accumulation of outlooks, knowledge, preferences, skills
353
maladaptiveness
behavior interferes with everyday life
354
parkinsons pathology
too little dopamine
355
overextension
child calling a moth a butterfly because she applies one class of objects onto another
356
medicalization
considering behaviors that weren't previously medical conditions to be medical conditions
357
self efficacy
refers to a person’s belief in his or her ability to accomplish tasks
can be described in terms of predicting one’s coping ability
358
in bernoullis principle, if viscosity is neglected, the relationship b/w P & velocity is _______ and the relationship b/w P & A is _________
inverse
direct
359
