minerals

Question 1

minerals

Answer 1

Minerals are solid, naturally occurring, inorganic substances.
They are found throughout nature, often bound to
other minerals or substances, such as in rocks.
The human body requires certain minerals to sustain life. While they do
not provide energy,
minerals are essential structural and functional nutrients.
Accordingly, mineral
deficiencies are associated with a range of complications

Question 2

what are basic organic elements

Answer 2

Carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen are sometimes called the basic organic elements because they are found within the molecules
that make up living things, such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

Question 3

as western eye lens are mineral’s living thing

Answer 3

defines organic matter as that which contains
carbon and comes from living things.
Minerals do not contain carbon,
which according to a Western science lens, makes them non-living,
inorganic things

Question 4

mineral bioavailablitiy

Answer 4

The bioavailability of a mineral refers to its availability in food as well as its propensity to be absorbed and
available for use within the body.
Both plants and animals are a source of minerals. The quantity and diversity of minerals found in plants depends on the mineral composition of the soil in which they are grown. The mineral content of
animal products depends on what the animal consumes. The more an animal eats, the more concentrated in minerals
they become.
Taken together, animal products, especially larger animal products, are a better source of minerals than
plant products.
Plants are also more likely to contain substances that negatively impact mineral bioavailability.

Question 5

Plant
compounds, , can negatively affect mineral absorption

Answer 5

such as phytates, oxalates, tannins and glucosinolates

Question 6

phytates

Answer 6

Phytates are found in plant seeds and are abundant in nuts, legumes and
grains. Plant foods can vary a lot in their phytate composition , with nuts and
beans tending to contain especially high amounts
Phytates impair iron and zinc absorption . They also
negatively affect calcium absorption, but to a lesser extent.
Phytate levels
can sometimes be reduced by soaking certain foods overnight (e.g., when
preparing beans), or fermenting them (e.g., when making sourdough for
bread)

Question 7

oxalates

Answer 7

are found in leafy green vegetables, nuts and seeds. Oxalates bind
to minerals, forming compounds that cannot be absorbed.
Specifically,
oxalates decrease calcium and iron bioavailability
Boiling foods high in oxalates can significantly reduce their oxalate content

Question 8

Tannins

Answer 8

found in tea, coffee, red wine and legumes. Tannins interfere with iron absorption. Those prone to iron deficiency are advised to avoid
consuming tannin-rich foods and beverages with meals that contain iron.
Interestingly, tannins have also been studied for a wide range of disease-reducing effects. Specifically, they have been shown to have anti-cancer,
antioxidant, anti microbial and anti-inflammatory properƟ es

Question 9

Glucosinolates

Answer 9

found in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels
sprouts and cabbage. They compromise iodine absorpƟ on.

Question 10

cofactors

Answer 10

Many minerals achieve their functions because they act as cofactors.
Cofactors are inorganic metals that bind
to enzymes, often activating them and thus improving the rate of reaction Recall that enzymes are typically
made from protein.
However, these proteins may require an inorganic (cofactor) or organic (coenzyme) substance in
their structure to become active. In other words, cofactors and coenzymes are needed to help enzymes do their work.
That is one of the main reasons we require minerals and vitamins from our diet: to facilitate the enzymatic processes
necessary for life

Question 11

major minerals

Answer 11

calcium , phsophorus , sodium, potassium,chloride,magnesium,sulfur,iron, zinc,manganese , copper , iodine,selenium,molybdenum,
fluoride,

Question 12

calcium

Answer 12

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body, accounting for approximately 1.5% of the body’s
weight. essential for structure and function, calcium is a key signalling molecule; it
helps send nerve signals and is an important messenger within cells. for muscle and heart contraction
and for secreting substances from glands. , the body stores a lot of calcium.
Indeed 99% of the
body’s calcium is stored within the bones and teeth,, promotes their structure
and stability. A constant dietary supply of calcium is needed, otherwise it will be taken from bones, negatively affecting bone density and health.

Question 13

special use of calcium

Answer 13

that calcium supplementation may help moderately reduce the risk of colorectal cancer evidence was not high enough to suggest recommending calcium supplementation to reduce cancer risk. Calcium supplementation has also been suggested for decreasing
the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and obesity. However, systematic reviews of randomized control trials have not
supported these associations

Question 14

calcium homeostasis

Answer 14

When calcium levels are too
low, body processes that require calcium are compromised. Conversely, when blood calcium is too high, it can deposit in
tissues, hardening and damaging them.
When calcium levels drop, parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released. PTH restores calcium levels through three
mechanisms . First, PTH promotes calcium release from bones by activating bone breaking cells called osteoclasts. Second, PTH decreases calcium excretion at the kidneys, so more is kept within the blood and less is lost in urine.
Third, PTH promotes the active on of vitamin D at the kidneys. Vitamin D then promotes calcium absorption at the small intestine.
Conversely, when blood calcium is high, the hormone calcitonin is released. Calcitonin opposes the actions of
PTH leading to a decrease in blood calcium. Indeed, calcitonin impairs osteoclast activity in bone, leading to less being
released into blood. Further, it promotes calcium excretion at the kidneys and a decrease in calcium absorption on at the
small intestines.

Question 15

source of calcium

Answer 15

The main sources of calcium are dairy products It can also be found in eggs, canned
fi sh with bones, fortified milk alternatives and leafy
green vegetables.

Question 16

calcium deficiency

Answer 16

Minor fluctuations in calcium are normal and parathyroid and vitamin D help maintain blood calcium at adequate
levels.
consistently at a calcium defi cit, our ability to achieve peak bone mass decreases, and our risk of osteoporosis increases. Peak bone mass is typically achieved within our 20s, after which it decreases over . Osteoporosis Foundation found that lifestyle factors, such as calcium intake and physical activity levels, are strongly associated with achieving a higher peak bone
mass .also found good evidence to support the role of vitamin D and dairy consumption in achieving this higher bone density. Achieving a higher peak bone mass and maintaining bone density throughout life are
key to reducing our risk of osteoporosis

Question 17

osteoporosis

Answer 17

is a lack of bone mineralization and density and is the main cause of bone fractures
in older adults. caused by an imbalance in bone remodelling favouring the breakdown of bone by osteoclasts.
Peak bone mass influences risk for osteoporosis, as do factors that negatively effect bone mineralization.
Women are at higher
risk for osteoporosis since their peak bone mass is not as high as males Also, hormonal changes around menopause
further promote decreases in bone density, further increasing risk for osteoporosis. Low calcium and vitamin D intake are
the two most critical nutritional factors that increase risk of both osteoporosis and bone fractures ,modifiable risk include physical inactivity, smoking, alcohol consumption and a lower body weight.
Non-modifi able risk factors include female gender, age and family history. In addition to its affects on bones, severe calcium deficiency can lead to numbness, muscle spasms, seizures and confusion.

Question 18

calcium toxicity

Answer 18

Minor increases in blood calcium present no symptoms. However, chronically elevated levels or a quick
increase in calcium levels may be evidenced by abdominal pain, bone pain and mental confusion.
Consistently high levels
of calcium can be fatal as they can lead to the calcification , or hardening, of the tissues. In the heart this can lead to cardiac arrest. Luckily, high dietary calcium intake rarely leads to these conditions. Calcification of the tissues is typically due
to other conditions such as an overactive parathyroid gland or cancer.

Question 19

phosphorus

Answer 19

Phosphorus is the second most abundant dietary mineral body Phosphorus is found within hydroxyapatite crystal that contains both calcium and phosphorus.
This crystal mineralizes bones and teeth, hardening them and promoting their strong structure.
Phosphorus is also
a critical component of all cells, as it is needed to form the phospholipids that make up the cell membrane. It is also part
of the key physiological molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate) as well as DNA and RNA, which have a sugar-phosphate
backbone

Question 20

phosphorus source

Answer 20

Phosphorus is abundant in animal products such as
salmon, cheese, milk, eggs and beef . Plant sources
include boiled lentils ls, cashews, potatoes, kidney beans, rice
and oatmeal

Question 21

phosphorus deficiency

Answer 21

Since phosphorus is abundant in many foods, dietary deficiency is rare; it typically occurs with severe malnutrition. Phosphorus deficiency can increase the risk for osteoporosis, seizures and coma. Symptoms deficiency include
anorexia, muscle weakness, anemia and an increased risk of infection

Question 22

what are electrolytes

Answer 22

Sodium, potassium and chloride are as the electrolytes, meaning they are involved in the
body’s electrical activity Calcium and magnesium are also electrolytes, though this is not their main function. In water, the electrolytes become ions – atoms that carry a positive or negative charge. movement
leads to the creation of an electrical current, which facilitates the electrical acitivty and function of our nerves, heart and
muscles

Question 23

sodium function

Answer 23

Sodium’s main function in the body is as an electrolyte. It is the primary cation (positively charged ion) found in the extracellular space. The
movement of sodium into a cell is part of what leads to the transmission of an electrical signal.
Sodium also plays an important role in regulating
fluid balance in the body. Water moves across a
semi-permeable membrane to equal out concentration
differences. For example, if there is a lot of
sodium on one side of a membrane compared to
the other side, water will move towards that sodium to even out this difference in concentration. Without this fluid balance, water can
build up in a tissue, causing it to swell.

Question 24

source of sodium

Answer 24

Sodium found naturally many foods and is also added during food processing, Almost three
quarters of the sodium we consume comes from the sodium added to processed foods .
Smoked,cured and salted animal products, as well as canned entrees, salted nuts and many prepackaged foods are all high in
sodium.
Table salt, or simply salt, is sodium chloride (NaCl). The salt we add to our food at the dinner table contributes
only about 5% to our sodium intake.

Question 25

sodium deficiency

Answer 25

Sodium deficiency is called hyponatremia, which typically arises due to excessive vomiting , sweating or diarrhea
– situations in which the body loses a large number of electrolytes, including sodium. Symptoms of hyponatremia include
nausea, vomiting, irritability, fatigue, loss of appetite, confusion, muscle weakness and spasm. In more extreme cases, it
can lead to loss of consciousness and coma.

Question 26

sodium toxicity

Answer 26

High blood sodium is typically caused by the excessive loss of body water, which concentrates the amount of
sodium in the blood. It is more common in elderly people, who might have an impaired thirst sensation, restricted accessto water or disease conditons that promote water loss. Mild cases result in thirst, weakness, nausea and loss of appetite.
At higher and chronic levels, sodium toxicity can lead to confusion, muscle twitching and brain hemorrhages. People who
regularly consume high levels of sodium may also be at higher risk for hypertension, or high blood pressure. The exact
cause of hypertension is not fully understood, but sodium reduction may help manage the condition

Question 27

potassium

Answer 27

Like sodium, main role of potassium is as an electrolyte . In water, potassium also becomes a positively charged ion. While sodium is the main ion found in the extracellular space, potassium is the main ion found in the intracellular space – that is, within the cytoplasm of a cell. Together, potassium and sodium are the two most important ions involved in the body’s electrical activity. Moreover, potassium and sodium also share the role of maintaining fluid balance

Question 28

potassium special use

Answer 28

the DASH randomized control trials showed that diets higher in potassium promoted lower blood pressure . Potassium from both dietary and supplemental sources may
reduce risk. Indeed, a meta-analysis of 25 randomized control trials found significant reductions in blood pressure with potassium supplementation government of Canada allows health claims on food labels stating, “A healthy diet containing foods high in potassium and low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blood
pressure, a risk factor for stroke and heart disease” . Potassium intake has also been studied for its potential to improve bone density and regulate blood glucose.

Question 29

potassium sources

Answer 29

Potassium is abundant in many whole
foods but is removed during food processing. Dried apricots, lentils, squash, potatoes, kidney beans, bananas, dairy products and salmon are all naturally high in potassium

Question 30

potassium deficiency

Answer 30

Potassium deficiency typically has no obvious symptoms.
If individuals do show symptoms, they may feel red,
have weakness or experience cramps. Low blood potassium can further increase the risk of an irregular heart rhythm,
promoting a slower heart-rate that can lead to cardiac arrest. Clinical potassium deficiency is typically caused by excessive
vomiting, diarrhea or certain medications

Question 31

potassium toxicity

Answer 31

The kidneys can eliminate extra potassium, so higher intakes do not pose a health risk in healthy individuals.
Those with impaired kidney function, who are on certain medications, or who have type 1 diabetes may have limited
potassium excretion potential, increasing their risk for toxicity.
Symptoms of potassium toxicity are rarely evidenced,
but in severe cases it can promote muscle weakness, heart irregularities and paralysis. Though uncommon, those taking
potassium supplements may also exhibit mild digestive tract issues

Question 32

chloride

Answer 32

Chloride is another mineral that functions as an electrolyte In water, or when bound to
another element, chlorine becomes a negatively charged ion called chloride. Like sodium and potassium, chloride is essential for
the body’s electrical activity as well as for maintaining fluid balance. It is also part of hydrochloric acid, which is secreted
by the stomach and contributes to protein digestion

Question 33

sources of chloride

Answer 33

Table salt – sodium chloride – is our main dietary
source of chloride). It can also be found in a variety of vegetables including seaweed, tomatoes, lettuce and
celery. Since table salt is used to cure meats, these processed
animal products are a source of both chloride and sodium.

Question 34

chloride deficiency

Answer 34

Because salt is so abundant in the North American diet, chloride deficiency is rarely due to low dietary intake.
Conversely, respiratory issues, vomiting and kidney malfunction are the main causes of chloride deficiency. Chloride
deficiency shows no symptoms, though in some individuals it can promote weakness, difficulty breathing, diarrhea and vomiting.

Question 35

chloride toxicity

Answer 35

Chloride toxicity is also typically asymptomatic. Since it can accompany other electrolyte toxicities, similar symptoms such as redness and muscle weakness may occur. Again, this electrolyte imbalance is not typically due to dietary
excess, but to irregular fluid balance in the body, which can concentrate chloride.

Question 36

magnesium

Answer 36

Magnesium is found throughout the body Magnesium is a cofactor for
more than 600 enzymes, promoting many physiological activities It is involved in
enzymatic reactions including energy metabolism and protein synthesis. Magnesium also helps DNA and RNA form their
three-dimensional structure. Furthermore, it is critical for the health of various organs. It is associated with healthy brain
development and maintaining a healthy heart. contributes to bone density by supporting the formation of hydroxyapatite crystals . Indeed, approximately half of the body’s magnesium content is stored in bone.

Question 37

special use of magnesium

Answer 37

Due to its wide-ranging effects, magnesium is a popular dietary supplement. For instance, magnesium may help
prevent migraine headaches. Randomized control trials have found modest reduction in migraine occurrence with a
600 mg/day magnesium supplement). Accordingly, the Canadian Headache Society lists
magnesium supplementation as an evidence-based way to reduce the risk for migraine headaches . Magnesium supplements have also been touted for their potential to support heart health and manage blood glucose levels. Meta-analyses of prospective epidemiological studies support these claims . However, large, well-designed randomized control trials are required to fully understand magnesium’s effects
and to support possible recommendations

Question 38

source of magnesium

Answer 38

Magnesium in many foods including nuts,
spinach, soymilk, black beans, edamame, bananas and avocado

Question 39

magensium deficiency

Answer 39

kidneys tightly regulate magnesium levels, dietary magnesium deficiency is rare. individuals with kidney malfunction, chronic alcoholism or who consistently consume low levels of magnesium may experience
certain symptoms. Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, fatigue and weakness are early signs of magnesium deficiency
Symptoms can progress to more severe ones such as cramping, numbness, tingling heart irregularities and seizures.

Question 40

magnesium toxicity

Answer 40

kidneys regulate magnesium levels so that they do not reach toxic states. dietary toxicity is rare in healthy individuals. Excessive magnesium levels due to dietary supplements or medications can lead to gastrointestinal
issues such as diarrhea, nausea and abdominal cramping. Magnesium is found in many laxatives and antacids, and high
doses from these sources can induce high blood levels of magnesium, which has fatal side effects. Magnesium
toxicity can promote low blood pressure, depression, muscle weakness and tiredness. It can progress to heartbeat irregularity, difficulty breathing and heart failure . Supplement intake should accordingly be closely monitored.

Question 41

sulfur

Answer 41

Sulfur is the third most abundant mineral in the human body. It is critical for the synthesis of the amino acids methionine and cysteine, whose side chains contain sulfur atoms. The presence of sulfur in these amino acids is critical to the three-dimensional structure of proteins, as bonds between sulfur groups help the amino acid chain fold into a
functional protein. Sulfur is also needed for the formation of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, an important anti oxidant that can decrease cellular damage ,Other minerals and vitamins also promote glutathione peroxidase
function by as cofactors and coenzymes.

Question 42

source of sulfure

Answer 42

Protein-rich foods supply the body with ample
sulfur through the sulfur-containing amino acids
methionine and cysteine . These amino acids are found in complete proteins like animal
products. Eating a variety of plant products can also
meet needs. Cruciferous vegetables like cauliflower,
cabbage, kale, broccoli as well as leafy vegetables are
naturally high in sulfur. Tap water and other beverages
may also help us meet sulfur needs.

Question 43

sulfur deficiency

Answer 43

Most Canadians consume adequate protein, which is our main source of sulfur, so sulfur defi ciency is rare. In
populations with inadequate protein intake, sulfur defi ciency can contribute to protein-energy malnutrition,

Question 44

sulfur toxicity

Answer 44

Sulfur toxicity from dietary consumption is rare. However, excessive supplementation, consuming tap water
with high sulfate levels or kidney malfunction can increase risk. Excess sulfur can promote diarrhea and perhaps colitis,
though more research into this risk is needed

Question 45

minor minerals

Answer 45

the major minerals, minor minerals are required in much smaller amounts. For instance, the RDAs
for the major minerals are en expressed in milligrams, while those for the minor minerals are typically expressed in
micrograms, which are 1000 Ɵ mes smaller than milligrams. However, that does not mean that the minor minerals are
unimportant. Like the major minerals, they are critical for the proper structure and function of the human body

Question 46

iron (minor)

Answer 46

Iron is essential for the structure and function of many proteins and enzymes. It is critical for the
formation of functional hemoglobin – the oxygen-carrying protein found in red blood cells. This protein has four iron ions
in its structure, making it a bonding site for oxygen molecules

Question 47

myoglobin

Answer 47

Myoglobin, also known as myohemoglobin,
is another oxygen-transporting compound that requires iron. It is found in muscle cells and contributes to their energy
metabolism. to its oxygen-transporting , iron is further involved in growth, neurological development and hormone synthesis.

Question 48

source of iron

Answer 48

A fraction of dietary iron is available for use in the body. Iron bioavailability is approximately 14–18% for mixed
diets and 5–12% for vegetarian diets . Animal-rich diets are thus more likely to promote adequate iron levels. This is partly because heme iron is absorbed beƩ er than nonheme iron and is thus more bioavailable. Also,
the oxalates, phytates and tannins found in certain plant sources of nonheme iron negatively impact iron absorption.
Other dietary factors can also impact iron bioavailability. For instance, caffeine and calcium negatively impact
iron absorpƟ on. Conversely, vitamin C competes with the negative effects of iron inhibitors, promoƟ ng absorpƟ on (Lynch
& Cook, 1980). Consuming heme or nonheme iron sources with foods rich in vitamin C, such as red peppers and citrus
fruits, is thus recommended to improve bioavailability

Question 49

whats heme iron and non heme

Answer 49

Dietary sources of iron are divided into two
categories: sources of heme iron and sources of nonheme
iron. Heme iron is the form that exists in blood and is accordingly only found in animal products such as red meat, poultry
and seafood. Nonheme iron is found in plant products, but
also in animal products, making animal products a source of
both heme and nonheme iron. Plant sources of nonheme iron
include lenƟ ls, beans, chickpeas, tofu, cashews and chia seeds.

Question 50

iron deficiency

Answer 50

Its most serious outcome is
iron-deficiency anemia. Iron-deficiency anemia occurs when there are not enough functional red blood
cells due to low iron status, negatively impacting oxygen delivery to the tissues

Question 51

stages of iron deficiency

Answer 51

There are several stages of iron defi ciency and symptoms progress at higher levels of defi ciency. Milder cases occur when iron levels in the blood and bone marrow are low. This is known as mild iron defi ciency. Marginal iron defi ciency occurs when blood levels as well as stores in the liver, muscle, spleen and bone marrow become depleted, Iron-defi -
ciency anemia is the fi nal stage and negaƟ vely impacts the iron levels in hemoglobin and the producƟ on of healthy red , Earlier stages may show no symptoms, but symptoms can progress to lethargy, Ɵ redness, weakness, hair loss
and thinning, and pale-coloured skin. At more severe levels, iron-defi ciency anemia can lead to an irregular heartbeat
and delayed growth in infants and children

Question 52

women and iron deficiency

Answer 52

women lose blood due to menstruation, at a higher risk for iron-deficiency anemia,
they are consuming less iron due to a vegetarian diet or have higher iron needs. Athletes are at a higher risk of iron deficiency as they lose iron through sweat and urine and have a higher degree of hemolysis – the breakdown of red blood
cells due to physical impact. Pregnancy also increases the risk for iron-defi ciency anemia, as iron requirements increase
to support blood volume development in the fetus. Indeed, researchers at St. Michael’s Hospital in Toronto analyzed the
blood of 1830 pregnant women and found that 90% were iron defi cient and half had severe iron defi ciency

Question 53

iron toxicity

Answer 53

Supplemental iron of more than twice the RDA can promote faintness as well as gastrointestinal issues such as
nausea, vomiting and conception . Excessive iron supplementation can also reduce zinc absorption and bioavailability
a one time consumption of 60 mg/kg of iron or more can lead to iron poisoning,
which can cause organ failure, coma and death. Children are at highest risk for iron poisoning, as they may mistake their
caregivers’ iron supplements for candies. In the case of acute iron poisoning, it is imperactive that the individual seek
immediate medical treatment. In both Canada and the USA, iron is now sold in child safe packages with clear warning
statements to reduce the risk of iron poisoning

Question 54

hepcidin

Answer 54

Hepcidin, the body’s iron-regulatory hormone, is responsible for keeping iron stores in balance. Its
main function is to suppress the absorption of iron when levels are high Conversely, when iron levels are low, hepcidin activity decreases, facilitating iron absorption. Accordingly, iron overload is rare in
those who consume iron solely from dietary sources. Iron toxicity is typically due to genetic conditions or the overconsumption of iron supplements.

Question 55

hemochromatosis

Answer 55

Individuals with a rare geneƟ c condition called hemochromatosis have dysregulated iron absorption and high
levels of internal iron. They are at higher risk for liver cirrhosis, liver cancer and heart disease if they do not regulate their
iron intake. They are accordingly recommended to avoid iron and vitamin C supplements

Question 56

zinc(minor)

Answer 56

Zinc is a ubiquitous mineral that acts as a cofactor for more than 100 different enzymes (. It plays many vital roles in the body including in gene expression, enzyme and immune function, protein and DNA
synthesis, wound healing, and growth and development. It is also included in the structure of the antioxidants
superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. It is present in every cell of the body and is the second-most abundant trace mineral after iron

Question 57

source zinc

Answer 57

Zinc is abundant in the diet as it is found in a wide
variety of foods . Good sources of zinc include
shell fish, animal products, legumes, dairy products, whole grains and certain vegetables like mushrooms, kale, peas,spinach and asparagus. Absorption of zinc from plant sources
is more difficult because plant compounds such as phytates
can inhibit absorption. Many foods are also fortified with zinc,
including breakfast cereals and baking flours.

Question 58

zinc deficiency

Answer 58

Zinc deficiency is rare due to dietary insufficiency but may occur due to certain genetic mutations or in individuals with alcoholism who are malnourished. Vegetarians and vegans are also at higher risk, though this can be miƟ gated
with a well-planned and varied diet. Mild zinc deficiency can promote slowed growth, erectile dysfunction, diarrhea,
thinning hair and impaired immunity

Question 59

zinc toxicity

Answer 59

Zinc toxicity may occur due to excessive supplementation but is rare from dietary sources. Symptoms include
nausea and vomiting, a metallic taste in the mouth, loss of appetite, diarrhea, abdominal cramps and headaches. High
dietary intake of zinc can also limit the absorption of copper and iron and promote their deficiency.

Question 60

manganese (minor)

Answer 60

Manganese – not to be confused with magnesium – is a cofactor for several enzymes in the body. It facilitates
enzymatic reactions involved in carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism, bone development and wound healing. It is
also part of the antioxidant superoxide dismutase.

Question 61

source of manganese

Answer 61

Manganese is abundant in shellfi sh and plant products. Good sources include mussels, oysters, nuts, beans,
chickpeas, whole wheat bread and leafy green vegetables. Foods that are higher in iron can slow its absorption

Question 62

manganese deficiency

Answer 62

Manganese deficiency rarely results from dietary insufficient. Conditions such as epilepsy, osteoporosis and diabetes may increase risk .Deficient individuals may experience poor growth, compromised
fertiliity and abnormal carbohydrate and lipid metabolism

Question 63

manganese toxicity

Answer 63

There are no established side eff ects of excessive manganese intake from food. Toxic levels can result from excessive supplementation, occupational inhalation (welders and smelters) or if tap water has excessively high manganese
levels. Toxicity promotes neurological symptoms including tremors, muscle spasms, muscular weakness and hearing loss.

Question 64

copper (minor)

Answer 64

Copper plays a key role in red blood cell production, is involved in iron absorption and is a cofactor for many
enzymatic reactions. Enzymes involved in energy metabolism, DNA synthesis and connective tissues synthesis all require
copper. It is also part of the antioxidant superoxide dismutase. Furthermore, copper is required for iron absorption.

Question 65

special use of copper

Answer 65

Magnetic therapy bracelets, which contain copper, have
long been promoted as a wearable treatment for arthritic pain. their use is not fully supported by evidence. For instance, a randomized control trial in patients with rheumatoid arthritis
assessed the effects of these bracelets on arthritis symptoms. no significant difference in pain, inflammation or physical ability
with their use. Furthermore, several study participants experienced
skin irritation from the bracelets Copper has
also been studied for its beneficial effects on CVD and Alzheimer’s disease. However, the evidence base is insufficient to support
the use of supplements in the prevention or management of these diseases

Question 66

source of copper

Answer 66

Copper is found in a wide variety of animal and plant
products. Beef liver, oysters, crab and salmon are
all high in copper. Plant products, such as potatoes, mushrooms,
cashew nuts and sunf ower seeds, are also high in the mineral

Question 67

copper deficiency

Answer 67

abundant in foods, dietary copper intake has been decreasing since the 1930s. Approximately one in four
Canadians are well below the RDA for copper . Since copper is needed for iron absorption, people who
get enough iron but are lacking in copper may experience iron-deficiency anemia. Other symptoms of defi ciency include
tremors, tingling sensations, awkward walking patterns, numbness and fatigue. digestive conditions, such as celiac disease as well as bariatric surgery, may increase risk for deficiency.

Question 68

copper toxicity

Answer 68

Copper toxicity is rare from food but can occur due to over-supplementation or due to certain genetic conditions. Though rare, copper toxicity can also occur due to a tainted water supply
Milder cases can result in vomiting, diarrhea, yellowing of skin and muscle pain. More serious cases can result in liver
damage, heart failure, kidney failure and even death. Copper toxicity is also the main complication of Wilson’s disease, a
condition in which the liver in unable to remove excess copper, leading to its accumulation in the brain, liver and eyes.

Question 69

iodine (minor)

Answer 69

Iodine is an essential component of the two thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) (. These two hormones, secreted by the thyroid gland, have metabolic effects all over the body. They are involved in
the regulation of fuel use, protein synthesis, heartbeat, body temperature regulation, muscle contraction and cell turnover.

Question 70

source of iodine

Answer 70

All table salt in Canada is iodized – that is, fortified
with iodine. This is the main source of iodine in the Canadian diet and has been since 1949 when the iodization of table salt became mandatory. It is also found naturally in
fish, dairy products and eggs, as well as plant products such
as seaweed, nuts and enriched bread

Question 71

iodine deficiency

Answer 71

Iodine defi ciency aff ects approximately two billion people worldwide (Lazarus, 2015). A quarter of these individuals exhibit clinical symptoms of defi ciency. Iodine defi ciency compromises the thyroid gland’s ability to make thyroid
hormones. It is common in areas where food is scarcer and salt is not iodized.

Question 72

goiter

Answer 72

In adults, iodine defi ciency can lead to hypothyroidism, which typically manifests as a goiter A goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid gland, which is located at the base of the neck. Iodine is needed to make thyroid hormones, but if iodine is insufficient, the thyroid gland enlarges as it tries harder to make these hormones. This condition is mostly reversible with iodine supplementation. However, if a goiter has been present for a long time, it may only
shrink subtly after iodine supplementation. The goiter is a physical sign of iodine deficiency, but other health concerns
can arise. When left untreated, deficiency can also promote heart disease, peripheral neuropathy, infertiliity and mental
health issues such as depression.

Question 73

Congenital iodine defi ciency syndrome

Answer 73

previously known as cretinism, occurs when iodine is deficient in the prenatal or postnatal nutrition of a child. Pregnant women have a higher need for iodine; if it is lacking, several neurological issues can arise in the child. Mental deficiencies, deaf mutism, difficulties with muscular control and slowed growth
can result due to congenital iodine deficiency Accordingly, prenatal vitamins containing iodine are
recommended to promote the healthy development of the fetus.

Question 74

iodine toxicity

Answer 74

Iodine poisoning, which typically results from excessive supplementation, can promote diarrhea, nausea and
vomiting. In more severe cases it can lead to the swelling of airways, limiting breathing, a lowered heartrate and even
coma. Iodine excess can also lead to iodine-induced hyperthyroidism, which can promote an accelerated heartrate, muscle weakness and unexplained weight loss. Interesngly, iodine excess can also cause goiters as the thyroid gland swells
in an aƩ empt to produce more thyroid hormones. Though iodine toxicity is rare in North America from dietary intake, it
has been evidenced in Japanese populaƟ ons who consume excess iodine, mostly from seaweed

Question 75

selenium (minor)

Answer 75

Selenium has roles in reproduction, the production and metabolism of the thyroid hormones, as well as in the
synthesis of DNA. Its most known role, however, is as an essential component of the antioxidant glutathione peroxidase

Question 76

special use of selenium

Answer 76

Selenium has been studied for its to reduce the risk of CVD. A systematic review of 25 observational studies found that those whose selenium blood levels were 50% higher than others had a 24% reduced risk of CVD
, a review of randomized control trials found that supplementation had no effect
on cardiovascular events There is currently no strong evidence base to support the use of selenium
supplementations in the prevention or management of CVD, but aƩ aining adequate amounts through the diet is recommended.
The potential cancer-reducing effects of selenium have also been researched. A systematioc review of 69 studies
including more than 300,000 people found that individuals with higher levels of selenium were at lower risk for breast,
lung, colon and prostate cancers . This affect was established due to selenium obtained from foods.
However, l cancer-protective effects of selenium supplementation have not been established with well-designed randomized control trials

Question 77

source of selenium

Answer 77

Selenium is found in both plant and animal products
. Fish, shellfish, eggs and chicken are high in
selenium, as are plants such as brazil nuts, sunflower seeds
and shitake mushrooms. However, the concentration of
selenium in plant foods depends on the quality of the soil in
which they were grown. For instance, one study found that
depending on where they were grown, the selenium content of brazil nuts varied from almost 300% of the RDA to as
low as 11%

Question 78

selenium deficiency

Answer 78

While rare in the Canada, more that a billion people worldwide may be aff ected by selenium deficiency . Selenium deficiency increases the risk of male infertiliity, muscle weakness, fatigue, hair loss and a weakened immune system. Individuals who are selenium deficient and experience a secondary stress such as a viral infection, have
a higher risk for Keshan disease. Keshan disease is a fatal disease of the heart muscle. It was first evidenced
in the Keshan province of China, but has been found all over the country, as well as in other areas of the world where
selenium content in the soil is low. Since the Chinese government mandated the application of a selenium mixture to crops, disease incidence has dropped dramatically . The incidence of selenium deficiency may increase worldwide, however, as climate change is predicted to decrease the selenium content of soil by more than 50%

Question 79

selenium toxicity

Answer 79

Selenium excess can increase the risk of hair loss, nail discolouration, muscle and joint pain, headache and gastrointestinal symptoms. Early symptoms may include a metallic taste in the mouth and breath that smells like garlic. Selenium supplements that are ingested in dosages far above the upper limit can lead to selenium poisoning. This can promote
neurological symptoms, breathing problems, kidney failure, heart attack and, though rare, even death. In 2008, there
was an outbreak of selenium toxicity in the USA due to a dietary supplement that claimed that it could maintain energy
and sustain health. The selenium content in the product was 200 times higher than that stated on the label, leading to a
toxic intake of selenium and symptoms such as diarrhea, fatigue, hair loss and joint pain

Question 80

molybdenum functions (minor)

Answer 80

Molybdenum is a cofactor in certain enzymatic
reactions. Molybdenum enzymes help break down sulfi tes , which can promote allergic reactions,
diarrhea, and breathing difficulties if they build up in the
blood.

Question 81

source of molybdenum

Answer 81

The molybdenum content of plants varies depending on
soil quality. Legumes are the best sources of molybdenum, while
lentils are also rich in the mineral Organ meats,
such as liver and kidney, as well as dairy products are good animal sources of molybdenum.

Question 82

molybdenum deficiency

Answer 82

Since molybdenum is abundant in a lot of foods and we only need a trace amount, deficiency is rare.

Question 83

molybdenum toxicity

Answer 83

Molybdenum toxicity is rare and is typically due to over-supplementation. Excessive intake may aff ect growth,
promote kidney failure or promote the development of seizures and brain damage. However, since defi ciency is rare, not
enough data has been collected to know the true symptoms of toxicity.

Question 84

fluoride

Answer 84

Fluoride is an ion of the naturally occurring mineral fl uorine. It is not typically deemed essential because it is not required for growth or to sustain life. However, it does have health-promoting efects through its well-established ability to strengthen bones and teeth. With calcium and phosphorus, fluoride forms a crystal structure called fluorapatite,
which hardens tooth enamel. Fluoride therefore contributes to tooth integrity and health. Accordingly, several municipalies in Canada add fl uoride to tap water to reduce the risk of dental caries in the population

Question 85

water fluoridation

Answer 85

In 2000, the Centers for Disease Control and PrevenƟ on stated that water fl uorinaƟ on is one of the 10
greatest public health achievements of the 20th century, due to its ability to reduce tooth decay (Centers
for Disease Control, 2000). Indeed, a systemaƟ c review of 155 prospecƟ ve epidemiological studies found
that water fl uorinaƟ on was eff ecƟ ve at reducing tooth decay by 35% (Iheozor-Ejiofor et al., 2015). However,
many people oppose water fl uorinaƟ on and it is the topic of debate and contenƟ on. This has led to signifi -
cant diff erences in water fl uorinaƟ on rates across Canada. FluoridaƟ on rates vary from 0% in Nunavut and
Yukon, to 75% in Ontario, with a naƟ onal average of 45% (Rabb-Waytowich, 2009). One of the main arguments against water fl uorinaƟ on is the cost, esƟ mated to range from 60 cents to one dollar per person per
year. This could amount to a cost of more than $30 million per year if the enƟ re country fl uorinated their
water. Individuals against water fl uoridaƟ on also propose that the increased risk of fl uorosis is a reason to
not fl uoridate the water. However, levels of fl uoride in the water are limited to prevent fl uorosis. Another
argument against fl uoridaƟ on of water is the fact that fl uoride can now be aƩ ained through toothpaste and
dental fl uoride treatments, so the need for water treatment may be unnecessary.

Question 86

flurodie toxicity

Answer 86

High intakes of fl uoride intake can lead to fl uorosis,
which is most common in children under eight. Fluorosis
negaƟ vely aff ects tooth enamel, promoƟ ng tooth discoloraƟ on. In rare cases it can lead to tooth damage. The characterisƟ c sign of fl uorosis is the appearance of white spots on
the teeth, which increase in size with the degree of fl uorosis
(Neville et al., 2015). Individuals with mild fl uorosis tend to
be more resistant to dental caries. However, at more severe
ranges, teeth can develop a brown discoloraƟ on (Figure
9.30). Accordingly, the fl uoride concentraƟ on of fl uoridated
water is maintained at levels that both reduce the risk of
caries and dental fl uorosis.High intakes of fl uoride intake can lead to fl uorosis,
which is most common in children under eight. Fluorosis
negaƟ vely aff ects tooth enamel, promoƟ ng tooth discoloraƟ on. In rare cases it can lead to tooth damage. The characterisƟ c sign of fl uorosis is the appearance of white spots on
the teeth, which increase in size with the degree of fl uorosis
(Neville et al., 2015). Individuals with mild fl uorosis tend to
be more resistant to dental caries. However, at more severe
ranges, teeth can develop a brown discoloraƟ on (Figure
9.30). Accordingly, the fl uoride concentraƟ on of fl uoridated
water is maintained at levels that both reduce the risk of
caries and dental fl uorosis.

Question 87

other mienarls

Answer 87

n this chapter, we have covered the essenƟ al minerals, as well as fl uoride. Other minerals, including boron,
arsenic, nickel, bromine, lithium, stronƟ um and silicon, also have known roles in the body. However, they are either not
currently deemed essenƟ al or debate exists about whether they are required to sustain life. More research is needed
before they are established or ruled out as essenƟ al.