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Ansc 301 > Minerals > Flashcards

Minerals Flashcards

1
Q

Is Ca a macro or micro mineral?

A

Calcium; macro, cationic

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2
Q

Is Mg a macro or micro mineral?

A

Magnesium; macro, cationic

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3
Q

Is Na a macro or micro mineral?

A

Sodium; macro, cationic

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4
Q

Is K a macro or micro mineral?

A

Potassium; macro, cationic

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5
Q

Is P a macro or micro mineral?

A

Phosphorous; macro, anionic

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6
Q

Is Cl a macro or micro mineral?

A

Chlorine; macro, anionic

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7
Q

Is S a macro or micro mineral?

A

Sulfur; macro, anionic

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8
Q

What is Mn?

A

Manganese, micromineral

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9
Q

What is Fe?

A

Iron, micromineral

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10
Q

What is Cu?

A

Copper, micromineral

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11
Q

What is I?

A

Iodine, micromineral

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12
Q

What is Se?

A

Selenium, micromineral

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13
Q

What is Zn?

A

Zinc, micromineral

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14
Q

What is F?

A

Fluorine, micromineral

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15
Q

What is Co?

A

Cobalt, micromineral

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16
Q

What is Mo?

A

Molybdenum, micromineral

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17
Q

What is the criteria for a mineral to be essential?

A

If the mineral is removed from the diet, it results in an abnormality (condition or biochemical reaction). If it is added back, the deficiency is eliminated.

Minerals are inorganic and cannot be synthesized by the animal.

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18
Q

What is the main reservoir of minerals in the body?

A

The skeleton

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19
Q

What are the general functions of the essential minerals?

A
  1. As a constituent of skeletal structure (Ca, P, K)
  2. To maintain osmotic pressure of cells (shape and turgor pressure; Na, K, Mg)
  3. Regulation of acid-base balance
  4. Component or activator of enzymes or compounds involved in biochemical reactions; COFACTOR
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20
Q

What specific minerals can be toxic in high amounts?

A

Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg)

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21
Q

Describe the balance of requirements and toxicity of minerals.

A

Some minerals have a very wide range (ex. Ca) before they become toxic, while others have a much more narrow range (ex. Cu).

Feeding under the requirement level can limit growth or cause other deficiencies while feeding over the requirement level can lead to toxic responses.

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22
Q

How are minerals excreted in general?

A
  1. Urine (absorbed)
  2. Feces (both absorbed and non-absorbed)
  3. Sweat (Na and Cl)

What are the routes to eliminate minerals absorbed in excess?
- bile
- pancreatic juices
- direct secretion into the large intestine

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23
Q

What factors affect mineral requirements?

A
  • chemical form of the mineral (chelates vs. inorganic)
  • species or breed
  • rate of growth (high rate = higher requirement)
  • physiological state (lactation, egg laying, etc.)
  • level of other minerals (ex. interaction between Cu and Zn)
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24
Q

Are mineral sulfates or oxides higher in bioavailability?

A

sulfates

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25
Q

How are minerals generally ranked in terms of their bioavailability?

A

Ranked according to sulfates as the base comparison.

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26
Q

What percent of total body minerals is calcium?

A

46%

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27
Q

What percent of total body minerals is phosphorous?

A

29%

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28
Q

What percent of total body minerals are K, Na, S, Cl, and Mg?

A

25%

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29
Q

What percent of body minerals are trace minerals?

A

0.3-0.5%

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30
Q

What is the most abundant mineral in the body?

A

Ca

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31
Q

What are some sources of Ca?

A

Mineral sources like calcium carbonate (limestone) which is cheaper, or dicalcium phosphate (dical) which is more bioavailable.

Animal sources: fish meal, meat and bone meal, milk products

Plant sources: roughages are rich sources of Ca, while cereal grain products are poor sources

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32
Q

Describe the relationship between sources of Ca and P in terms of plant sources.

A

In general roughages/forages are high in Ca and low in P.

Cereal grain products are low in Ca and high in P.

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33
Q

What ratio does Ca and P exist in?

A

2:1

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34
Q

What are the main functions of calcium?

A

99% of body Ca plays a structural role as part of bone and teeth. Is is a component of hydroxyapatite crystals in the bone. Since it is a 2+ ion, other 2+ ions can sub in for it.

Remaining 1% of Ca is in cells and intracellular fluid.
Responsible for:
- enzyme activation
- blood clotting
- permeability of cell membrane
- impulse transmissions at the neuromuscular junction
- MUSCLE CONTRACTION (Ca binding to actin in a sarcomere causes the contraction; release causes relaxation)

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35
Q

What is calcium circulation regulated by?

A
  1. Calcitonin: a hormone that reduced calcium in circulation; forces uptake of Ca into the bones
  2. Parathyroid hormone increases Ca circulation
  3. Active from of Vit D (1,25-(OH)2D) increases circulation

2 and 3 work at intestinal level; pull Ca out of bone storage

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36
Q

What are some signs of Ca deficiency?

A
  • reduced growth
  • excess P and Mg can produce deficiency symptoms
  • same deficiency symptoms as Vitamin D (rickets and osteomalacia)
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37
Q

What is rickets?

A

Disease in young animals causing misshapen bones, enlarged joints, lameness, and stiffness.

Caused by Ca or Vit D deficiency

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38
Q

What is osteomalacia?

A

Disease in mature animals causing softening of the bones due to lack of calcification.

Caused by Ca or Vit D deficiency

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39
Q

What does Ca deficiency result from?

A
  • absence of Vit D
  • Low Ca intake
  • Low P intake
  • Abnormal Ca:P ratio
  • high fat diet, Ca soap formation (mainly in ruminants)
  • High requirement during pregnancy and lactation
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40
Q

What is milk fever?

A

A disease in lactating cows when blood Ca drops to hypocalcemic levels

Can be treated by giving Ca gluconate

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41
Q

What are sources of P?

A
  1. Animal sources: meat and bone meal, fish meal
  2. Low in roughages but high in concentrates/cereal grains
  3. Commercial sources:
    - dical
    - monocalcium phosphate
    - defluorenated rock phosphate
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42
Q

What are the general functions of P?

A

Similar to Ca

  • part of the hydroxyapatite crystal in bones
  • acid base balance
  • carb metabolism (phosphorylates intermediates)
  • allosteric regulator of many enzymes
  • component of phospholipids, DNA, RNA, ATP, ADP
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43
Q

Why is the ideal Ca:P ratio 2:1?

A

High Ca and low P causes formation of insoluble CaPO4 in gut lumen

High P and low Ca leads to reduced absorption

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44
Q

What is phytate phosphorous?

A

This is complexed form P is found as in many plant sources. It has a low bioavailability.

Phytates are salts of phytic acids.

Phytate is present in plant meals.

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45
Q

What is phytase?

A

Phytase is an enzyme produced by rumen microbes.

It liberates phosphorous from the phytate molecules.

It is available commercially, but some plants, like wheat, have high levels of it naturally.

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46
Q

Describe phytase use in ruminants vs. nonruminants.

A

Phytase is often present in the diet of nonruminants so they can get P from phytate.

Ruminant microbes produce phytase, so it does not have to be given to them.

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47
Q

What are symptoms of P deficiency?

A

Similar to Ca and Vit D deficiency: rickets and osteomalacia

Pica

Tropical and subtropical soils are deficient in P, so we are more worried about using phytase in those regions.

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48
Q

What is pica?

A

Pica is a disease, aka depraved appetite, where the animal will eat almost anything they see. It is a result of P deficiency.

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49
Q

Where is K mostly found?

A

After Ca and P, K is the next must abundant mineral in the body.

2/3 of it is found in skin and muscle.

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50
Q

What is a good source of K?

A

Plant sources are generally high in K (except for grains)

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51
Q

What are some general functions of K?

A
  1. Activator or cofactor in enzyme systems
    - Na+/K+ pump
    - carbonic anhydrase
    - salivary amylase
  2. Osmotic balance
  3. Transmission of nerve impulses
  4. acid/base balance
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52
Q

What is the anion gap and DCAD?

A

The anion gap is the different between cations and anions in blood that is used to test for the potential of acidosis.

DCAD (dietary cation anion difference) is used to help formulate cattle rations; want to make it negative to force calcium mobilization in lactating cows to prevent milk fever

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53
Q

What issues can arise from excess K?

A

These problems arise for dairy cattle fed excess alfalfa.
- udder edema
- milk fever
- grass tetany

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54
Q

What is grass tetany?

A

A disease where K outcompetes other cations in the body, causing muscle tremors or collapse

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55
Q

What are symptoms of K deficiency?

A

K deficiency is rare, has to be induced

  • reduced appetite
  • decreased growth, weakness, tetany
  • degeneration of vital organs, nervous disorders, diarrhea
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56
Q

What are sources of sodium?

A

Plant products are poor sources

Animal products are good sources

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57
Q

What are the functions of sodium?

A
  • osmotic balance
  • absorption of carbohydrates and amino acids
  • Na+/K+ pump
  • transmission of nerve impulses
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58
Q

What are symptoms of sodium deficiency?

A

Decreased osmotic pressure which leads to dehydration and weakness.

Poor growth because of reduced carb and AA absorption

Pica

59
Q

When is Na deficiency more likely to occur?

A
  1. During lactation (Na+ and Cl- secreted in milk)
  2. In rapidly growing animals (especially when fed cereal or forage based diets)
  3. under tropical conditions (Na+ loss in sweat) and in hard working animals
60
Q

How is Na provided in the diet?

A

Supplement with salt

61
Q

What is nutritional wisdom?

A

When an animal detects a deficiency and seeks out a source of nutrients

62
Q

What mineral do animals most frequently display nutritional wisdom for?

A

Na

63
Q

What are the main functions of Cl?

A

Closely associated with Na functions

  1. regulation of osmotic pressure
  2. HCl - gastric juice, protein digestion
  3. pancreatic juice, bile, intestinal secretions
  4. Cl required for amylase activity
64
Q

Describe Cl deficiency?

A

Only deficient when an animal is on purified of concentrated diets

Reduced growth, reduced milk production, depraved appetite, emaciation

May lead to abnormal increase in bicarbonate or alkalosis (blood pH too high)

Overall similar to Na deficiency

65
Q

Where is sulfur found in the body?

A

Small quantities found as sulfates

Almost all sulfur in the body in contained in methionine and cysteine (protein bound) and taurine (free, a sulfonic acid, not an AA)

66
Q

What are glycosaminoglycans?

A

compounds in the joints that help lubricate them by pulling in fluids; the levels get lower in older animals

examples are chondroitin and heparin sulfate

67
Q

What is chondroitin?

A

A glycosaminoglycan found in cartilage, bone, tendons, and blood vessel walls; it is a sulfate

68
Q

What are sources of S?

A

AA, water, sulfates

69
Q

Describe the relationship between S and limiting AA.

A

Purified AA can be supplemented in the diet and some of their levels can be decreased by feeding inorganic sulfate

70
Q

Describe the relationship between S and ruminants.

A

Some inorganic sulfate is present in forages, and some rumen microbial species can incorporate it to S-containing AA.

N:S ratio in rumen should be 10:1 to ensure the microbial species are making a well-balanced AA profile

With insufficient S comes reduced rumen microflora and reduction in nutrient digestibility

71
Q

What are symptoms of sulfur deficiency in ruminants?

A
  • reduced weight gain, appetite
  • dullness, weakness
  • decreased wool growth in sheep
  • decreased intake
72
Q

What are symptoms of sulfur toxicity in ruminants?

A

Polioencephalomalacia (star gazing) is the most striking sign. This is also caused by Thaimin (Vit B1) deficiency

73
Q

How does high S in the diet cause polio in ruminants?

A

S combines with H+ in the rumen to make hydrogen sulfide gas, which can be inhaled when eructed. This causes lung and cell damage that can lead to polio.

74
Q

What are some sources of Mg?

A

Mg is only found naturally in compounds as a component of something.

It’s usually higher in forages than in grains, and is found in animal products too.

The mostly common supplement is MgO (magnesium oxide)

75
Q

What are the functions of Mg?

A
  1. Structural component of bone (60-70% of Mg found there)
  2. Required for all phosphate transferring systems
  3. Activator of all reactions requiring thiamin pyrophosphate
  4. binds mRNA to ribosomes
  5. functional component of Arginase
  6. vasodilation
76
Q

What is Arginase?

A

Arginase is a metalloenzyme that contains Mg as a functional part.

It is involved in the urea cycle, converting arginine to ornithine in all animals except poultry (excrete uric acid, not urea)

77
Q

What is hypomagnesemia?

A

low Mg levels due to elevated K

78
Q

What symptoms are associated with Mg deficiency?

A
  • tetany: involuntary contraction of muscles due to increased frequency of action potentials
  • nervousness, hyper irritability
  • tremors, convulsions
  • twitching
  • staggering gait
79
Q

How can grass tetany be avoided?

A

By avoiding the spring flush and feed 1:1:1 mix of MgO: TM salt: grain (feed excess Mg to force intake) before turning the cattle out to pasture

80
Q

How is grass tetany treated?

A

Magnesium IV or enema

81
Q

What are the functions of Fe?

A
  • Functional component of hemoglobin needed to carry oxygen
  • functional component of myoglobin
  • redox reactions, electron transfer symptoms
  • cytochromes and flavoproteins
82
Q

What is transferrin?

A

It transports iron between storage and functional forms

83
Q

What is ferritin?

A

Ferritin is a blood protein that iron is stored in. It is released by cerulopasmin.

84
Q

What are sources of iron?

A

Green leafy materials, most legumes

Phytase may increase availability

Animal meals

Milk is a poor source

85
Q

What changes in appearance are caused by Fe deficiency?

A
  • unthrifty appearance
  • heavy breathing
  • enlarged heart
  • diarrhea (secondary symptom)
86
Q

What diseases are observed in pigs from Fe deficiency?

A

Baby pig anemia, aka thumps

87
Q

What is thumps?

A

Baby pig anemia, a disease caused by Fe deficiency

There is a low placental transfer of Fe

Clinical signs are pale skin, transparent ears, decreased RBC count, and “thumps” (labored breathing)

It is common when the sow is kept indoors and does not have access to soil with Fe

Treated with supplemental iron, such as ferrous sulfate

88
Q

What are some examples of more available and less available sources of Cu?

A

More available: Cu-Lys, CuSO4

Less: Cupric oxide

89
Q

How is Cu used in nutrition?

A

CuSO4 is used as a growth promotant in young pigs and chicks; it is thought to have a role in controlling microbial populations

90
Q

Where is the body is Cu mostly found? How is it excreted?

A

Highest concentrations in liver, muscle, and bone

Mostly excreted in bile

91
Q

How is Cu transported?

A

Transported in the blood as a component of ceruloplasmin

92
Q

What are the main functions of copper?

A

As a component of ceruloplasmin, Cu helps convert ferric (Fe 3+) iron in Ferritin to ferrous (Fe 2+) iron when released. Release increases Fe in circulation to be bound to Transferin and incorporated into hemoglobin or myoglobin

It also plays a role in the formation of oxygen carrying proteins

OVERALL RELATIONSHIP WITH FE IS IMPORTANT

Cu is also in cytochrome C oxidase, which is important in oxidative phosphorylation.

It also helps maintain the integrity of myelin sheaths around axons, helping with nerve communication

93
Q

Describe copper as a component of enzymes.

A

Cu is part of tyrosinase, an enzyme important in melanin formation.

It is also a component of lysyl oxidase, which promotes collagen cross-linking by adding OH groups to Lys.

94
Q

How is copper absorption controlled?

A

There is absorption by active transport and some diffusion.

Rate of absorption is controlled at the intestinal mucosa by Ctr1 (digesta to lumen)

Intracellular metallothionein protein (Cu and Zn) binds Cu to Cys residues

95
Q

How can Cu retention in the body be reduced?

A
  • dietary phytate
  • high levels of Ca, Fe, Zn, and Mo
  • excretion in bile and feces

Cu can be bound to phytic acid, reducing absorption

Zn also uses Ctr1, so it competes with Cu

Mo binds with Cu in the GIT to form a Cu-Mo complex, reducing its availability

96
Q

What are signs of Cu deficiency?

A
  • poor growth
  • ANEMIA (relation to Fe)
  • nervous lesions
  • depigmentation of hair/wool (role in tyrosinase and melanin production)
  • decreased growth and crimp in wool
  • in ruminants: caused by excess S or Mo
97
Q

Describe copper toxicity in sheep.

A

Sheep are very susceptible to copper toxicity.

Copper accumulates in the liver over time. It reaches high levels there while blood Cu remains normal.

Cu can then be released from the liver into circulation due to excitability or other factors, reaching high levels and killing the sheep.

It causes cell necrosis, jaundice, anemia, and death.

Toxicity often occurs when trace mineral supplements designed for cattle are fed to sheep.

It can be prevented by having a proper trace mineral formulation (Zn and Mo reduce Cu). Mo forms complexes with Cu in the GIT and reduces availability. We must be careful not to use too much Zn or Mo though, or a secondary Cu deficiency can occur.

98
Q

Describe copper toxicity in cattle.

A

Holsteins can tolerate 100 ppm with no problem, while jerseys are susceptible to Cu toxicity at >50 ppm.

99
Q

Describe a specific incidence of Cu toxicity in dogs.

A

Bedlington terriers have a genetic disorder where they store too much copper.

100
Q

What are the functions of Mo?

A
  1. Purine catabolism via xanthine oxidase
  2. Aldehyde oxidase to reduce cytochrome C
101
Q

What does xanthine oxidase do?

A

Mo based; catalyze purines

Catalyzes oxidation of xanthine to uric acid, therefore, Mo raises uric acid levels

102
Q

What does aldehyde oxidase do?

A

Mo based; reduces cytochrome C

103
Q

What are signs of Mo deficiency?

A

Not a practical concern

excess could tie up Cu and cause a secondary deficiency

104
Q

Which mineral is the only one regulated by the FDA? Why?

A

Selenium

It persists in the environment through bioaccumulation. When you go up the food chain, Se concentration increases.

105
Q

Describe selenium in soil.

A

High Se in the soil can be toxic to livestock. In soils with lower Se, it may need to be supplemented in the diet.

Western states have higher Se concentrations in the soil.

106
Q

What plants are seleniferous?

A
  • astragalus genus (locoweeds and milk vetch)
  • zylorhiza
  • oonopsis
  • goldenweed

Most animals will not graze these plants if they have other options.

107
Q

What are some high available sources of Se?

A

Bo-Se and Se-yeast

108
Q

What are the functions of selenium?

A
  • metalloenzyme: glutathione peroxidase (interaction of Se and vitamin E)
  • synthesis of biologically active thyroid hormone
  • cell growth
  • eicosanoid biosynthesis
109
Q

What are symptoms of Se deficiency?

A

Nutritional muscular dystrophy or cardiomyopathy.

  • Mulberry heart diease (pigs)
  • Stiff lamb disease
  • white muscle disease (calves)

Nonruminants: nerve degeneration and edema (membrane degredation)

THESE ARE THE SAME SYMPTOMS OF VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY

  • suppressed immune system
  • impaired reproduction
110
Q

Describe Se’s role in the immune system.

A

The enzyme glutathione peroxidase, of which Se is involved in, helps take care of free radicals in the body, preventing oxidation.

111
Q

What are symptoms of Se toxicity?

A

chronic
- DAMAGED HOOVES
- hair loss
- dullness
- stiffness of joints

acute
- death from respiratory failure

112
Q

What are sources of fluorine?

A

Water for humans

Mineral supplements and feedstuffs of animal origin for animals.

113
Q

Where is fluorine found in the body?

A

Bones and teeth

Can form fluoroapatite crystal.

114
Q

What are symptoms of fluorine toxicity?

A

mottled enamel, osteosclerosis (increased bone density), reduced growth, disruption of glucose metabolism

115
Q

What causes chronic fluorosis in grazing livestock?

A
  1. continuous consumption of high F supplements
  2. drinking water high in F
  3. grazing on F contaminated forages close to industrial plants
116
Q

What are functions of Co?

A

Cobalt:
- constituent of Vitamin B12
- same deficiency symptoms as Vit B12

117
Q

What are sources of Co?

A

Most feedstuffs have adequate levels; there are soil deficiencies in Florida and other east coast states

118
Q

Is Co toxicity a concern?

A

Not really because it is poorly retained in the body and there is a wide range between toxicity and requirement

119
Q

What is the heaviest element required by animals for proper physiological function?

A

Iodine

120
Q

Where is most of the iodine in the body found?

A

In the thyroid gland (70-80%)

121
Q

What are symptoms of iodine deficiency?

A

-An enlarged thyroid gland (goiter) due to I deficiency can occur. This is because the deficiency causes a decrease in T3/T4 thyroid hormones, so they brain stimulates growth of thyroid tissue to try and make up for it.

122
Q

What are goitrogenic substances?

A
  • Substances that lead to an enlarged thyroid gland
  • interfere with synthesis of T3 and T4
  • generally contained in crops belonging to the Brassica family
  • Brassica rapa (“field mustard), canola, ornamental cabbage
123
Q

What are functions of Mn?

A

Manganese
- enzyme activation:
1. phosphate transferase (carb metabolism)
2. decarboxylase
3. enzymes involved in synthesis of glycosaminoglycans (like glucosamine and chondroiton) and glycoproteisn

124
Q

What are symptoms of Mn deficiency?

A

Mn deficiency may be promoted by high dietary Ca and P.

Symptoms:
- PEROSIS (slipped tendon) in young chicks; related to cartilage formation (glycosaminoglycans aren’t synthesized properly)
- reduced growth
- depressed or delayed estrous and conception, increased abortion

125
Q

Where is zinc located in the body?

A

skin, hair, wool

accumulates in bones

component of metalloenzymes

insulin is stored as a zinc complex

126
Q

What are some functions of zinc?

A

Activator of arginase and various peptidases

Important for enzymes involved in RNA/DNA synthesis

127
Q

Describe zinc homeostasis

A

Controlled by rate of absorption

Regulated by intestinal mucosa
- with low Zn, most is bound to Cys-rich intestinal protein (CRIP)
- With high ZN, most is bound to metallothionein (contains Zn and Cu)

128
Q

What factors affect Zn status?

A

Retention in body can be decreased by:
- dietary phytates
- high levels of Ca, Fe, Cu, and Mo
- excretion into pancreatic juices, bile, and feces

129
Q

What are symptoms of Zn deficiency?

A
  • PARAKERATOSIS: skin lesions, reddening, eruptions, scabs
  • reduced feathering
  • reduced immune function
130
Q

Why are toxic minerals classified as toxic?

A

Their biological activity is confined to toxic reactions

131
Q

Describe Al as a toxic mineral

A

Al can be found in acidic soils, and is often not intentionally added to animal diets

132
Q

Describe Al metabolism

A

Small amount is absorbed, most is excreted as feces

Retained Al is deposited in the liver, skeleton, brain, and other tissues

133
Q

Describe aluminum toxicity symptoms

A

Ingestion of high amounts of aluminum results in an observed phosphorous deficiency (Al binds to P), forming insoluble phosphates and reducing the availability of P

Toxic to the human brain; associated with neurofibrillary tangles observed in Alzheimer’s disease

134
Q

How is As used?

A

Arsenic is used as weed killers, insecticides, and for wood treatment of fence posts

135
Q

Describe arsenic toxicity

A

As easily accumulates in soil and causes a lot of acute clinical symptoms like:
- vomiting
- diarrhea
- dermatitis

136
Q

What is Roxarsone?

A

As containing coccidiostat used in poultry production (some As compounds can be tolerated in smaller amounts)

137
Q

Where does Cd originate from?

A

Cadmium originates from Zn smelting and refining processes.

It is also present in some fertilizers used on agricultural land

138
Q

Describe Cd metabolism

A
  1. Lack of homeostatic control
  2. Retention in the body, long-half life
  3. Accumulation in soft tissues: liver, kidney
  4. Interaction with other divalent metals during absorption in tissues
139
Q

Describe Cd toxicity

A

Can affect the biosynthesis of porphyrins, hemes, and cytochromes, as well as the mobilization and release of Fe

Has adverse effects on Ca metabolism

Infertility

Similar symptoms to Zinc deficiency

140
Q

Describe a specific incident bioaccumulation of Cd

A

There is a high concentration of Cd in the soil of mining regions of Colorado, and it is taken up by willows. Ptharmigans (birds) rely on this willow plant and eat it. This leads to Cd toxicity, and they develop brittle bones as a secondary Ca deficiency.

141
Q

Where is Pd found in the environment?

A

plants, soil, water

runoff from smelting

142
Q

Describe Pd metabolism

A

Lead is taken up by the GIT, skin, and respiratory tract

40% of absorbed led is deposited in the skeleton and remains relatively immobile; can also accumulated in the liver and kidneys

excreted in bile and urine

143
Q

Describe symptoms of Pd toxicity

A
  • anemia from interference with heme synthesis
  • polioencephalomalacia (like S toxicity and thiamin/Vit B1 deficiency)
  • inhibits neurotransmitter release by mimicking or replacing cellular Ca
144
Q

How do we treat lead toxicity?

A

Use chelating agents to increase urinary excretion of lead and bile

Ansc 301 (15 decks)

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