Minerals Flashcards
Is Ca a macro or micro mineral?
Calcium; macro, cationic
Is Mg a macro or micro mineral?
Magnesium; macro, cationic
Is Na a macro or micro mineral?
Sodium; macro, cationic
Is K a macro or micro mineral?
Potassium; macro, cationic
Is P a macro or micro mineral?
Phosphorous; macro, anionic
Is Cl a macro or micro mineral?
Chlorine; macro, anionic
Is S a macro or micro mineral?
Sulfur; macro, anionic
What is Mn?
Manganese, micromineral
What is Fe?
Iron, micromineral
What is Cu?
Copper, micromineral
What is I?
Iodine, micromineral
What is Se?
Selenium, micromineral
What is Zn?
Zinc, micromineral
What is F?
Fluorine, micromineral
What is Co?
Cobalt, micromineral
What is Mo?
Molybdenum, micromineral
What is the criteria for a mineral to be essential?
If the mineral is removed from the diet, it results in an abnormality (condition or biochemical reaction). If it is added back, the deficiency is eliminated.
Minerals are inorganic and cannot be synthesized by the animal.
What is the main reservoir of minerals in the body?
The skeleton
What are the general functions of the essential minerals?
- As a constituent of skeletal structure (Ca, P, K)
- To maintain osmotic pressure of cells (shape and turgor pressure; Na, K, Mg)
- Regulation of acid-base balance
- Component or activator of enzymes or compounds involved in biochemical reactions; COFACTOR
What specific minerals can be toxic in high amounts?
Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg)
Describe the balance of requirements and toxicity of minerals.
Some minerals have a very wide range (ex. Ca) before they become toxic, while others have a much more narrow range (ex. Cu).
Feeding under the requirement level can limit growth or cause other deficiencies while feeding over the requirement level can lead to toxic responses.
How are minerals excreted in general?
- Urine (absorbed)
- Feces (both absorbed and non-absorbed)
- Sweat (Na and Cl)
What are the routes to eliminate minerals absorbed in excess?
- bile
- pancreatic juices
- direct secretion into the large intestine
What factors affect mineral requirements?
- chemical form of the mineral (chelates vs. inorganic)
- species or breed
- rate of growth (high rate = higher requirement)
- physiological state (lactation, egg laying, etc.)
- level of other minerals (ex. interaction between Cu and Zn)
Are mineral sulfates or oxides higher in bioavailability?
sulfates
How are minerals generally ranked in terms of their bioavailability?
Ranked according to sulfates as the base comparison.
What percent of total body minerals is calcium?
46%
What percent of total body minerals is phosphorous?
29%
What percent of total body minerals are K, Na, S, Cl, and Mg?
25%
What percent of body minerals are trace minerals?
0.3-0.5%
What is the most abundant mineral in the body?
Ca
What are some sources of Ca?
Mineral sources like calcium carbonate (limestone) which is cheaper, or dicalcium phosphate (dical) which is more bioavailable.
Animal sources: fish meal, meat and bone meal, milk products
Plant sources: roughages are rich sources of Ca, while cereal grain products are poor sources
Describe the relationship between sources of Ca and P in terms of plant sources.
In general roughages/forages are high in Ca and low in P.
Cereal grain products are low in Ca and high in P.
What ratio does Ca and P exist in?
2:1
What are the main functions of calcium?
99% of body Ca plays a structural role as part of bone and teeth. Is is a component of hydroxyapatite crystals in the bone. Since it is a 2+ ion, other 2+ ions can sub in for it.
Remaining 1% of Ca is in cells and intracellular fluid.
Responsible for:
- enzyme activation
- blood clotting
- permeability of cell membrane
- impulse transmissions at the neuromuscular junction
- MUSCLE CONTRACTION (Ca binding to actin in a sarcomere causes the contraction; release causes relaxation)
What is calcium circulation regulated by?
- Calcitonin: a hormone that reduced calcium in circulation; forces uptake of Ca into the bones
- Parathyroid hormone increases Ca circulation
- Active from of Vit D (1,25-(OH)2D) increases circulation
2 and 3 work at intestinal level; pull Ca out of bone storage
What are some signs of Ca deficiency?
- reduced growth
- excess P and Mg can produce deficiency symptoms
- same deficiency symptoms as Vitamin D (rickets and osteomalacia)
What is rickets?
Disease in young animals causing misshapen bones, enlarged joints, lameness, and stiffness.
Caused by Ca or Vit D deficiency
What is osteomalacia?
Disease in mature animals causing softening of the bones due to lack of calcification.
Caused by Ca or Vit D deficiency
What does Ca deficiency result from?
- absence of Vit D
- Low Ca intake
- Low P intake
- Abnormal Ca:P ratio
- high fat diet, Ca soap formation (mainly in ruminants)
- High requirement during pregnancy and lactation
What is milk fever?
A disease in lactating cows when blood Ca drops to hypocalcemic levels
Can be treated by giving Ca gluconate
What are sources of P?
- Animal sources: meat and bone meal, fish meal
- Low in roughages but high in concentrates/cereal grains
- Commercial sources:
- dical
- monocalcium phosphate
- defluorenated rock phosphate
What are the general functions of P?
Similar to Ca
- part of the hydroxyapatite crystal in bones
- acid base balance
- carb metabolism (phosphorylates intermediates)
- allosteric regulator of many enzymes
- component of phospholipids, DNA, RNA, ATP, ADP
Why is the ideal Ca:P ratio 2:1?
High Ca and low P causes formation of insoluble CaPO4 in gut lumen
High P and low Ca leads to reduced absorption
What is phytate phosphorous?
This is complexed form P is found as in many plant sources. It has a low bioavailability.
Phytates are salts of phytic acids.
Phytate is present in plant meals.
What is phytase?
Phytase is an enzyme produced by rumen microbes.
It liberates phosphorous from the phytate molecules.
It is available commercially, but some plants, like wheat, have high levels of it naturally.
Describe phytase use in ruminants vs. nonruminants.
Phytase is often present in the diet of nonruminants so they can get P from phytate.
Ruminant microbes produce phytase, so it does not have to be given to them.
What are symptoms of P deficiency?
Similar to Ca and Vit D deficiency: rickets and osteomalacia
Pica
Tropical and subtropical soils are deficient in P, so we are more worried about using phytase in those regions.
What is pica?
Pica is a disease, aka depraved appetite, where the animal will eat almost anything they see. It is a result of P deficiency.
Where is K mostly found?
After Ca and P, K is the next must abundant mineral in the body.
2/3 of it is found in skin and muscle.
What is a good source of K?
Plant sources are generally high in K (except for grains)
What are some general functions of K?
- Activator or cofactor in enzyme systems
- Na+/K+ pump
- carbonic anhydrase
- salivary amylase - Osmotic balance
- Transmission of nerve impulses
- acid/base balance
What is the anion gap and DCAD?
The anion gap is the different between cations and anions in blood that is used to test for the potential of acidosis.
DCAD (dietary cation anion difference) is used to help formulate cattle rations; want to make it negative to force calcium mobilization in lactating cows to prevent milk fever
What issues can arise from excess K?
These problems arise for dairy cattle fed excess alfalfa.
- udder edema
- milk fever
- grass tetany
What is grass tetany?
A disease where K outcompetes other cations in the body, causing muscle tremors or collapse
What are symptoms of K deficiency?
K deficiency is rare, has to be induced
- reduced appetite
- decreased growth, weakness, tetany
- degeneration of vital organs, nervous disorders, diarrhea
What are sources of sodium?
Plant products are poor sources
Animal products are good sources
What are the functions of sodium?
- osmotic balance
- absorption of carbohydrates and amino acids
- Na+/K+ pump
- transmission of nerve impulses
What are symptoms of sodium deficiency?
Decreased osmotic pressure which leads to dehydration and weakness.
Poor growth because of reduced carb and AA absorption
Pica
When is Na deficiency more likely to occur?
- During lactation (Na+ and Cl- secreted in milk)
- In rapidly growing animals (especially when fed cereal or forage based diets)
- under tropical conditions (Na+ loss in sweat) and in hard working animals
How is Na provided in the diet?
Supplement with salt
What is nutritional wisdom?
When an animal detects a deficiency and seeks out a source of nutrients
What mineral do animals most frequently display nutritional wisdom for?
Na
What are the main functions of Cl?
Closely associated with Na functions
- regulation of osmotic pressure
- HCl - gastric juice, protein digestion
- pancreatic juice, bile, intestinal secretions
- Cl required for amylase activity
Describe Cl deficiency?
Only deficient when an animal is on purified of concentrated diets
Reduced growth, reduced milk production, depraved appetite, emaciation
May lead to abnormal increase in bicarbonate or alkalosis (blood pH too high)
Overall similar to Na deficiency
Where is sulfur found in the body?
Small quantities found as sulfates
Almost all sulfur in the body in contained in methionine and cysteine (protein bound) and taurine (free, a sulfonic acid, not an AA)
What are glycosaminoglycans?
compounds in the joints that help lubricate them by pulling in fluids; the levels get lower in older animals
examples are chondroitin and heparin sulfate
What is chondroitin?
A glycosaminoglycan found in cartilage, bone, tendons, and blood vessel walls; it is a sulfate
What are sources of S?
AA, water, sulfates
Describe the relationship between S and limiting AA.
Purified AA can be supplemented in the diet and some of their levels can be decreased by feeding inorganic sulfate
Describe the relationship between S and ruminants.
Some inorganic sulfate is present in forages, and some rumen microbial species can incorporate it to S-containing AA.
N:S ratio in rumen should be 10:1 to ensure the microbial species are making a well-balanced AA profile
With insufficient S comes reduced rumen microflora and reduction in nutrient digestibility
What are symptoms of sulfur deficiency in ruminants?
- reduced weight gain, appetite
- dullness, weakness
- decreased wool growth in sheep
- decreased intake
What are symptoms of sulfur toxicity in ruminants?
Polioencephalomalacia (star gazing) is the most striking sign. This is also caused by Thaimin (Vit B1) deficiency
How does high S in the diet cause polio in ruminants?
S combines with H+ in the rumen to make hydrogen sulfide gas, which can be inhaled when eructed. This causes lung and cell damage that can lead to polio.
What are some sources of Mg?
Mg is only found naturally in compounds as a component of something.
It’s usually higher in forages than in grains, and is found in animal products too.
The mostly common supplement is MgO (magnesium oxide)
What are the functions of Mg?
- Structural component of bone (60-70% of Mg found there)
- Required for all phosphate transferring systems
- Activator of all reactions requiring thiamin pyrophosphate
- binds mRNA to ribosomes
- functional component of Arginase
- vasodilation
What is Arginase?
Arginase is a metalloenzyme that contains Mg as a functional part.
It is involved in the urea cycle, converting arginine to ornithine in all animals except poultry (excrete uric acid, not urea)
What is hypomagnesemia?
low Mg levels due to elevated K
What symptoms are associated with Mg deficiency?
- tetany: involuntary contraction of muscles due to increased frequency of action potentials
- nervousness, hyper irritability
- tremors, convulsions
- twitching
- staggering gait
How can grass tetany be avoided?
By avoiding the spring flush and feed 1:1:1 mix of MgO: TM salt: grain (feed excess Mg to force intake) before turning the cattle out to pasture
How is grass tetany treated?
Magnesium IV or enema
What are the functions of Fe?
- Functional component of hemoglobin needed to carry oxygen
- functional component of myoglobin
- redox reactions, electron transfer symptoms
- cytochromes and flavoproteins
What is transferrin?
It transports iron between storage and functional forms
What is ferritin?
Ferritin is a blood protein that iron is stored in. It is released by cerulopasmin.
What are sources of iron?
Green leafy materials, most legumes
Phytase may increase availability
Animal meals
Milk is a poor source
What changes in appearance are caused by Fe deficiency?
- unthrifty appearance
- heavy breathing
- enlarged heart
- diarrhea (secondary symptom)
What diseases are observed in pigs from Fe deficiency?
Baby pig anemia, aka thumps
What is thumps?
Baby pig anemia, a disease caused by Fe deficiency
There is a low placental transfer of Fe
Clinical signs are pale skin, transparent ears, decreased RBC count, and “thumps” (labored breathing)
It is common when the sow is kept indoors and does not have access to soil with Fe
Treated with supplemental iron, such as ferrous sulfate
What are some examples of more available and less available sources of Cu?
More available: Cu-Lys, CuSO4
Less: Cupric oxide
How is Cu used in nutrition?
CuSO4 is used as a growth promotant in young pigs and chicks; it is thought to have a role in controlling microbial populations
Where is the body is Cu mostly found? How is it excreted?
Highest concentrations in liver, muscle, and bone
Mostly excreted in bile
How is Cu transported?
Transported in the blood as a component of ceruloplasmin
What are the main functions of copper?
As a component of ceruloplasmin, Cu helps convert ferric (Fe 3+) iron in Ferritin to ferrous (Fe 2+) iron when released. Release increases Fe in circulation to be bound to Transferin and incorporated into hemoglobin or myoglobin
It also plays a role in the formation of oxygen carrying proteins
OVERALL RELATIONSHIP WITH FE IS IMPORTANT
Cu is also in cytochrome C oxidase, which is important in oxidative phosphorylation.
It also helps maintain the integrity of myelin sheaths around axons, helping with nerve communication
Describe copper as a component of enzymes.
Cu is part of tyrosinase, an enzyme important in melanin formation.
It is also a component of lysyl oxidase, which promotes collagen cross-linking by adding OH groups to Lys.
How is copper absorption controlled?
There is absorption by active transport and some diffusion.
Rate of absorption is controlled at the intestinal mucosa by Ctr1 (digesta to lumen)
Intracellular metallothionein protein (Cu and Zn) binds Cu to Cys residues
How can Cu retention in the body be reduced?
- dietary phytate
- high levels of Ca, Fe, Zn, and Mo
- excretion in bile and feces
Cu can be bound to phytic acid, reducing absorption
Zn also uses Ctr1, so it competes with Cu
Mo binds with Cu in the GIT to form a Cu-Mo complex, reducing its availability
What are signs of Cu deficiency?
- poor growth
- ANEMIA (relation to Fe)
- nervous lesions
- depigmentation of hair/wool (role in tyrosinase and melanin production)
- decreased growth and crimp in wool
- in ruminants: caused by excess S or Mo
Describe copper toxicity in sheep.
Sheep are very susceptible to copper toxicity.
Copper accumulates in the liver over time. It reaches high levels there while blood Cu remains normal.
Cu can then be released from the liver into circulation due to excitability or other factors, reaching high levels and killing the sheep.
It causes cell necrosis, jaundice, anemia, and death.
Toxicity often occurs when trace mineral supplements designed for cattle are fed to sheep.
It can be prevented by having a proper trace mineral formulation (Zn and Mo reduce Cu). Mo forms complexes with Cu in the GIT and reduces availability. We must be careful not to use too much Zn or Mo though, or a secondary Cu deficiency can occur.
Describe copper toxicity in cattle.
Holsteins can tolerate 100 ppm with no problem, while jerseys are susceptible to Cu toxicity at >50 ppm.
Describe a specific incidence of Cu toxicity in dogs.
Bedlington terriers have a genetic disorder where they store too much copper.
What are the functions of Mo?
- Purine catabolism via xanthine oxidase
- Aldehyde oxidase to reduce cytochrome C
What does xanthine oxidase do?
Mo based; catalyze purines
Catalyzes oxidation of xanthine to uric acid, therefore, Mo raises uric acid levels
What does aldehyde oxidase do?
Mo based; reduces cytochrome C
What are signs of Mo deficiency?
Not a practical concern
excess could tie up Cu and cause a secondary deficiency
Which mineral is the only one regulated by the FDA? Why?
Selenium
It persists in the environment through bioaccumulation. When you go up the food chain, Se concentration increases.
Describe selenium in soil.
High Se in the soil can be toxic to livestock. In soils with lower Se, it may need to be supplemented in the diet.
Western states have higher Se concentrations in the soil.
What plants are seleniferous?
- astragalus genus (locoweeds and milk vetch)
- zylorhiza
- oonopsis
- goldenweed
Most animals will not graze these plants if they have other options.
What are some high available sources of Se?
Bo-Se and Se-yeast
What are the functions of selenium?
- metalloenzyme: glutathione peroxidase (interaction of Se and vitamin E)
- synthesis of biologically active thyroid hormone
- cell growth
- eicosanoid biosynthesis
What are symptoms of Se deficiency?
Nutritional muscular dystrophy or cardiomyopathy.
- Mulberry heart diease (pigs)
- Stiff lamb disease
- white muscle disease (calves)
Nonruminants: nerve degeneration and edema (membrane degredation)
THESE ARE THE SAME SYMPTOMS OF VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY
- suppressed immune system
- impaired reproduction
Describe Se’s role in the immune system.
The enzyme glutathione peroxidase, of which Se is involved in, helps take care of free radicals in the body, preventing oxidation.
What are symptoms of Se toxicity?
chronic
- DAMAGED HOOVES
- hair loss
- dullness
- stiffness of joints
acute
- death from respiratory failure
What are sources of fluorine?
Water for humans
Mineral supplements and feedstuffs of animal origin for animals.
Where is fluorine found in the body?
Bones and teeth
Can form fluoroapatite crystal.
What are symptoms of fluorine toxicity?
mottled enamel, osteosclerosis (increased bone density), reduced growth, disruption of glucose metabolism
What causes chronic fluorosis in grazing livestock?
- continuous consumption of high F supplements
- drinking water high in F
- grazing on F contaminated forages close to industrial plants
What are functions of Co?
Cobalt:
- constituent of Vitamin B12
- same deficiency symptoms as Vit B12
What are sources of Co?
Most feedstuffs have adequate levels; there are soil deficiencies in Florida and other east coast states
Is Co toxicity a concern?
Not really because it is poorly retained in the body and there is a wide range between toxicity and requirement
What is the heaviest element required by animals for proper physiological function?
Iodine
Where is most of the iodine in the body found?
In the thyroid gland (70-80%)
What are symptoms of iodine deficiency?
-An enlarged thyroid gland (goiter) due to I deficiency can occur. This is because the deficiency causes a decrease in T3/T4 thyroid hormones, so they brain stimulates growth of thyroid tissue to try and make up for it.
What are goitrogenic substances?
- Substances that lead to an enlarged thyroid gland
- interfere with synthesis of T3 and T4
- generally contained in crops belonging to the Brassica family
- Brassica rapa (“field mustard), canola, ornamental cabbage
What are functions of Mn?
Manganese
- enzyme activation:
1. phosphate transferase (carb metabolism)
2. decarboxylase
3. enzymes involved in synthesis of glycosaminoglycans (like glucosamine and chondroiton) and glycoproteisn
What are symptoms of Mn deficiency?
Mn deficiency may be promoted by high dietary Ca and P.
Symptoms:
- PEROSIS (slipped tendon) in young chicks; related to cartilage formation (glycosaminoglycans aren’t synthesized properly)
- reduced growth
- depressed or delayed estrous and conception, increased abortion
Where is zinc located in the body?
skin, hair, wool
accumulates in bones
component of metalloenzymes
insulin is stored as a zinc complex
What are some functions of zinc?
Activator of arginase and various peptidases
Important for enzymes involved in RNA/DNA synthesis
Describe zinc homeostasis
Controlled by rate of absorption
Regulated by intestinal mucosa
- with low Zn, most is bound to Cys-rich intestinal protein (CRIP)
- With high ZN, most is bound to metallothionein (contains Zn and Cu)
What factors affect Zn status?
Retention in body can be decreased by:
- dietary phytates
- high levels of Ca, Fe, Cu, and Mo
- excretion into pancreatic juices, bile, and feces
What are symptoms of Zn deficiency?
- PARAKERATOSIS: skin lesions, reddening, eruptions, scabs
- reduced feathering
- reduced immune function
Why are toxic minerals classified as toxic?
Their biological activity is confined to toxic reactions
Describe Al as a toxic mineral
Al can be found in acidic soils, and is often not intentionally added to animal diets
Describe Al metabolism
Small amount is absorbed, most is excreted as feces
Retained Al is deposited in the liver, skeleton, brain, and other tissues
Describe aluminum toxicity symptoms
Ingestion of high amounts of aluminum results in an observed phosphorous deficiency (Al binds to P), forming insoluble phosphates and reducing the availability of P
Toxic to the human brain; associated with neurofibrillary tangles observed in Alzheimer’s disease
How is As used?
Arsenic is used as weed killers, insecticides, and for wood treatment of fence posts
Describe arsenic toxicity
As easily accumulates in soil and causes a lot of acute clinical symptoms like:
- vomiting
- diarrhea
- dermatitis
What is Roxarsone?
As containing coccidiostat used in poultry production (some As compounds can be tolerated in smaller amounts)
Where does Cd originate from?
Cadmium originates from Zn smelting and refining processes.
It is also present in some fertilizers used on agricultural land
Describe Cd metabolism
- Lack of homeostatic control
- Retention in the body, long-half life
- Accumulation in soft tissues: liver, kidney
- Interaction with other divalent metals during absorption in tissues
Describe Cd toxicity
Can affect the biosynthesis of porphyrins, hemes, and cytochromes, as well as the mobilization and release of Fe
Has adverse effects on Ca metabolism
Infertility
Similar symptoms to Zinc deficiency
Describe a specific incident bioaccumulation of Cd
There is a high concentration of Cd in the soil of mining regions of Colorado, and it is taken up by willows. Ptharmigans (birds) rely on this willow plant and eat it. This leads to Cd toxicity, and they develop brittle bones as a secondary Ca deficiency.
Where is Pd found in the environment?
plants, soil, water
runoff from smelting
Describe Pd metabolism
Lead is taken up by the GIT, skin, and respiratory tract
40% of absorbed led is deposited in the skeleton and remains relatively immobile; can also accumulated in the liver and kidneys
excreted in bile and urine
Describe symptoms of Pd toxicity
- anemia from interference with heme synthesis
- polioencephalomalacia (like S toxicity and thiamin/Vit B1 deficiency)
- inhibits neurotransmitter release by mimicking or replacing cellular Ca
How do we treat lead toxicity?
Use chelating agents to increase urinary excretion of lead and bile
