Migration, identity and sovreignty Flashcards
How does globallisation Changed demands for labour?
globalisation has changed the economic makeup of may countries and regions, and has moved economies away from agriculture to secondary and tertiary industries. This has created uneven economic development both within countries and between them, a process known as core-periphary polarisation. This has changed the demand for labour and encourages migration, a process which has been enncouraged through developments in transport.
Case study: rural urban migration iin china
In 1978, the open door of deng xiaoping revolutionised the chinese economy by allowing capitalist enterprise and fdi to flow to SEZs. This created significant demand for labour, ehich paid higher than rural incomes, thus encoraging rurual urban migration to provide the labour to create chinese export might. more than 400 million people have moved to cities since
What are push and pull factors?
What geographic model relates to this?
The factors that make people want to move from one region to another. usual regions include war, poverty and lack of oppourtunities (services and jobs), and jobs, infrastructure and family. The Lee model suggests a person will migrate when the balance of push and pull factors is strong enough to overcome intervening obsticles, people will migrate.
What is backwash
Flows of factors of production from peripheral to core regions. This process is responsible for the polarisation of regional prosperity.
What is the Shengen agreement?
An agreement in 1995 where most EU countries agreed to allow the free movement of people between eu countries
case study of core-periphary movement in the eu
There has been a substantial movement of migrants from eastern and southern euorpe to the core regions (western europe). In 2022, there were approximately 5 million EU citizens living in Germany
What % of the worlds population is a migrant?
3.6%
What is the immigration policy of singapore and how does this influence its population demographics
In Singapore, the term migrant workers is separated into foreign workers and foreign talent. Foreign workers refers to semi-skilled or unskilled workers who mainly work in the manufacturing, construction, and domestic services sectors. The majority of them come from places such as China,[20] Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand, as part of bilateral agreements between Singapore and these countries. Foreign talent refers to foreigners with professional qualifications or acceptable degrees working at the higher end of Singapore’s economy. They mostly come from India, Australia, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Canada, Western Europe, New Zealand, United Kingdom and the United States. About 3/4 of Singapore is ethnically Chinese
What is japan’s immigration policy and how has it affected the population of immigrants
Japan’s population is
declining; 27% are aged 65
and over and its working
age population is expected
to drop to 44 million by
2037, half of what it was in
2007. In most advanced
economies around 5% of
people are usually immigrants but this is only 2.7% for Japan. The UN
thinks Japan requires 17
million migrants by 2050
to make sure population
levels don’t drop below 2007
levels
Migration is limited due to
the fact that Japanese isn’t
an international language,
thus many don’t speak it
outside of Japan, and its
closed-door policies
towards migrants.
THe number has incereased though (2.7% is a record high) due to the need to replace an aging population
Why does neo-liberal economic theory encourage migration?
Most migrants are young, and an influx of migration will give a country a demographic dividend. Increasing the size of the labour force increases the quantity of the factors of production present in the economy. this increases long run aggregate supply, and therefore productive capacity of the economy. Economic efficency is also maximised as resources are allocated to where they produce the most output
What is a migrant?
Someone who moves their permanent residence from one country to another
What is the difference between an immigrant and an emmigrant?
Immigrant = entering the country
emmirant = leving the country
What is a Refugee
A person who leaves their home due to (or fear of) persucution, war or an event which threatens their saftey.
What is an economic migrnt
Someone who moves their residence to improve their financial position
How has globalisatoin increased levels of migration?
- Developments in transportation has led to space time compression, and has significantly reduced the time and cost it takes to migrate
- It has caused core - periphery polarisation - the uneven spatial distribution of economic and social success. This has occured both within countries and between them, and has encouraged flows of migrants seeking to improve their quality of life.
- Rural areas have not been as switched on from globalisation, and thus have not seen the advancements in development that urban hubs have. this has created both push and pull factors. In addition, mechanisation of agriculture has reduced the demand for rural labour
Give an example of how political events have influenced the source and type of migration
Increasing political instability in the middle east has forced many citizens to become refugees. Nearly 7 Million Syrians have been forced to lleave their country. The unprecidented rise in conflicts have created significant push factors and made intervening obsticles insignificant in comparison.
How will enviromental factors influence migration?
The impact of climate change is making many areas in sub-saharen africa more aird (sahel 2012) as well as putting many island nations at risk of disapperaing (Kiribati). This generates a new flow of enviromental refugees which will only intensify by the end of the century
What are the different reasons migrants migrate?
- War
- To rejoin family members, especially common in the British common wealth
- Neo classical theory states it is simply moving to areas with better wages
How does migration challenge national sovreignty?
National identity is often tied to shared cultural, linguistic, and social practices. Migration, especially when it involves large numbers of individuals from different cultural backgrounds, can create multiculturalism or even ethnic fragmentation. This can challenge the cohesion of the dominant national culture, leading to a shift in cultural landscapes and potential identity crises within the nation-state.
If migrants fail to assimilise, they can challenge the haegonomity of culture and ethnicity that some stakeholders feel is an important part of their identity.
What is assimilation
Cultural assimilation is the process in which a minority group or culture comes to resemble society’s majority groups values, behaviors, and beliefs
How is assimilation measured?
Social scientists rely on four primary benchmarks to assess immigrant assimilation: socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, second language attainment, and intermarriage
- Language attainment in the uk for non uk born citizens was 87%, but this varies with Ethnic group - 25% of Bangledeshis did not have good english.
- Length of time if residents varies
- Whether enclaves are formed
- Inter ethnic marriage is low for some ethnic groups, such as pakistani.
What was a stated aim of the Breixt referendum?
To regain sovreignty over decisions of migration - 52% voted leave
Migration accross the US-mexico boarder case study
Many people from southhern and central america undergo significant journeys to reach the USA in search for the ‘promised land’ of economic oppourtunity. However, this process is extremely contreversial. 7 million migrants were encountered during the Biden administration. Trump has promised to continue building a wall to stop this ‘invasion’ and has signed an executive order declaring the situation a national emergancy.
What are behind the differing views of migration in the US and UK?
- Economic benefits - 10% of Californias work force is an illegal immigrant, and work on farms for long hours and little pay. However, some argue that there willingness to work for loower pay diminishes the sovreingty of unions and governments to increase the quality of life for natives
- Burden on services - some in the UK feel that Migrants take unfair advantage on UK services, by coming in and usiing the NHS without having paid national insurance. Some argue that Immigrants actually help run these services due to their skills - 1/5 of the NHS has a non british nationality
- Culture - Some fear the cultural erosion that occures due to the the failure of many ethnic groups to assimilate. They fear their way of life has been eroded. the three largest cities in the UK - London, Birmingham and Manchester are all minority British.
- Some say it puts a burden on Housing.
What affects the ability of people to migrate?
Skills - Singapore seperates migrants into ‘foreign talen’ and ‘foreign workers’, with stricter controls put on the semi skilled/ unskilled foreign workers. They work for lower pay and are often from south east asia.
Income - it is rarely the poorest in society that migrate - the amout of capiital required is out of the reachof many in absolute poverty. Migrants paying to be smuggled accros the meditarian will often have to pay up to £10,000.
* Permeability of boarders - Schengen agreement vs Japan boarder controls (Japan has a refugee success rate of less than 1%)
What is a state?
A territory over which no other country holds power or sovreignty.
What is sovereignty
The ability of a place and its people to govern without outside interference
What is a nation?
A territorilised group of people who may lack sovreignty
example of a country that has mainted it’s cultrual and ethnic homognous + reasons
Iceland is an example of a state that has maintained its cultural homoginity. Over 90% of the country is ethnically icelandic. Childrens name have to come from an approved list. In 2008, McDonalds closed its resturants. The reasons for cultural homoginity is mainly due to it’s location - it is physically isolated inn the Atlantic ocean, creating a physical barrier to migration. In addition, reduced urbanisation and economic advancements reduce the need for TNC’s and the labour flows that come with it.
An example of a country that is ethnically and culturally divided
Singapore is a melting pot of different cultures. 75% of the population is ethnnically chinese. Differeing colonial rule, \from Britiain, Japan and Malay hav sencouraged migration, as well as the rapid economic growth which has increased demand for labour.
What are the differing ways boarders have been formed
Natural boarders - Eg the alps seperating Francd and Italy. Physical geography, before the shrinking world affect, acted as a barrier to migration and kept nations seperate
* Historically - ethnic groups settled with each other and formed gradually overtime, such as the germanic speaking tribes unifying to form Germany
* Colonial rule - Geometrically drawn and took no account of ethnic composition. Rwanda was formed despite traditional seperation of Tutsi and Hutu people, causing a decade long conflict.
Wha conflict has occured due to the conflicted Russo-Ukraine boarder
Many ukranians are ethnically russian, and this has given putin a supposed motive to take back Ukraine. In a series of steps, he has gradually tried to encroach on Ukraines boarders, from the anexation of Crimera in 2014 to the Full scale invasion from 2022. Real motives are less ckear cut, he wants access to crimeras warm water port and also fears the cnroachment of NATO onto Russian boarders. Thus, it is a mixture of geopolitical motivation and percived ethnic sovreignty.
What are the reasons for the non recognition of taiwan
After the communist revolution in China, in 1949 2 million chinese nationalists fled to Taiwan and set up their own, democratically elected government. China still claims sovreingty over Taiwan, and routinely uses its air force to encrroach its air space. The UN does not recognise Taiwan, but it has become a rising geopolitical issue as the USA does, partially due to its economic significance in compuer chip manufacturing (TSMC is the worlds largest)
What is nationalism?
an ideology that elevates one nation or nationality above all others and that places primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations. Sometimes this involves the seeking of independence and sovreignty from outside influence
How was 19th-century nationalism was important in the development of empires and a source of conflict in Europe
European countries were often formed out of a sense of connection of a wider ethnic group - Italy and germany were both unified from a collection of smaller states. In the 19th and 20th century, nationalism was often a justification for the expansion of empires, believing that in some way, EUropean powers were helping the lands which they colonised by bringing their ‘superior’ way of life to them. Nationalism was also the originator of WWII, due to Hitlers extreme form of nationalism and his quest for lebensraum from the ethnically inferior slavs
What did the German philospher Friedrich Hagel (18-19th century) say about nationalism?
A sense of nationalistic identity was the cement which held society together in a world where religous and dynastic ties were eroding
Why did many former colonies begin to gain their independence post 1945?
- After 2 world wars, Britain and other European countries did not have the resources to effectively manage a global empire
- The growing national self-determination in many colonies - the Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya was the beggining of the ‘winds of change’ through Africa
- Some young Europeans were increasingly sceptical of the morals of maintaining an empire
What did Harold Macmillan say about the winds of change?
‘this growth of national consciousness is a political fact’
What is the colonial history of sudan and what where the costs of it becoming independent?
Like many African countries, the country of Sudan was artificially grouped together. Britain embarked on a stratergy of divide and rule, wehreby it put ethnic groups of nativees against each other, as to distract them from their issues with colonialism. Britain, along with egypt, developed the mainly arab north while marginalising the largely black south. After many years of civil war, in 2011 South Sudan gained independence. However, a civil war started in 2013 due to tensions between different ethnic groups, and has so far displaced over 2 million people.
What act gave citizens of the common wealth a right to settle in the uk?
the 1949 British Nationality act
How has migration from the common wealth influenced Britains ethnic composition?
Many citizens of commonwealth countries migrated to the uk to seek a better quality of life (1948 windrush, later from south asia). The UK welcomed this as a means to fill skills gaps - the london underground held interviews in Jamacia. This has made Britain a cultural mosaic, but also created cultural clustering as people with a shared culture ooften group together in communities.
Between 1948-71, how many people from common wealth countries migrated to the UK?
500,000
How has globalisation encouraged encouraged the formation of tax haven states.
Globalisation, aswell as IGOs, has encouraged the adoption of the washington consensus. This has lead to the deregulation of trade, as well as the privitisation of many buisnesses. This liberalisation also encouraged the development in flows of capital and profit, made possible by advancements in ICT. Some countries have chosen to take advantage of this, and offer very little tax rates, meaning wealthy individuals and TNCs repatriate their profits to these countries to exploit the low tax rates - in return, the countries get an influx of foreign currency that they can use to finance development and increase living standards.
What is an example of a tax heaven?
The Caymen Islands, which has a personal income tax rate of 0%. There are around 100,000 companies listed in the caymen islands, more than the population of the island itself.
Why do most governments and IGOs accept the growth of tax heavens?
The worlds economic system is deeply rooted in a philosphy of economic liberalism and the washington consensus. Governments and IGOs may believe that flows of capital are an inevitable part of economic intergration and preventing it would go against liberal values. In addition, TNCs play such an important role in many western economies that governments cannot afford to aliennate them.
Why do some governments and NGOs object to the existence of tax loopholes.
That the global elitte are finding loopholes to avoid paying their fair share, leading to a rise in inequality and increasing social unrest. Governments lose billions in tax revenues that could instead be used to finance public services.
In 2023, how much did global goverments lose in tax revenue as a result of tax heavens?
$472 billion
What is the inequality like in Brazil?
The 6 richest individuals hold the same level of wealth as the botto 50% (more than 100 million people)
How has Bolivia adopted an alternative economic system to reduce inequalities.
President Evo Morales, a democratic socialist, has nationalised many formerly private utility industries - it was his belief that TNCs exploited consunmers and repatriated profits overseas. He has used this as well as increased taxes to increase access to utilities, as well as providing maximum food prices.
When was the united nations founded?
1945
What were the 5 original objectives of the UN?
The UN was set up after WWII to be a more successful league of nations. Its aims were:
* To maintain global peace and security
* Promote sustainablle development, through the sustainable development goals
* Protect human rights
* Uphold international law
* Provide humanitarian aid, and conduct peace keeping missions
What is and what is the significance of the UN security council?
It is charged with maintaining peace between nations. Therefore is often considered the most important subsect of the UN as it has responsibility over. It has five permanent members (UK, USA, France, Russia and China) and ten rotaating non permanent members.
How do the different geopolitical visions of the UN security council affect its role in global governance?
The 5 permanent members hol veto power over UN resolutions, thus rival superpowers in the West and Russia and China often vote accordingly to their geopolitical objectives rather than in the best interest of the global community, which can reduce it’s effectiveness.
What proportion of vetos is the soviet union responsible for?
nearly half
What are two examples of members of the council using veto powers to fufil their geopolitical objectives?
2014 - Russia and China vetoed a resolution condeming Syria
2024 - US vetoed a resolution that would have allowed the General Assembly to vote on Palestine’s full UN membership.
What are some of the key parts/ conventions of the UN?
The universal declaration of human rights
WTO - eradicated polio, measles etc…
The UN Environment program - sets a global environmental agenda
The World food program - feeds 90 million people every year
What are the two main ways the UN intervenes to protect human rights?
Economic sanctions and direct militaristic intervention
What happened in the embargo against Iran?
It is an example of successful intervention. worried about if the Iranian government was planning to build nuclear weapons, the Un ordered a sanctions on Iran banning the supply of nuclear related materials in 2006, and this later was extended to an arms and travel ban, as-well as asset freezing in 2010. Financial institutions were banned from investing in Iran. This intense economic pressure forced Iran to negotiate, and in 2015 Iran suspended enrichment activity.
What happened in the UN intervention in the DRC?
The MONUSCO, the UN peace keeping operation in the DRC is by far the largest peace keeping operation undergone by the UN. Since 1999, $10 billion has been spent in the employment of peace keeping troops. Under article 7, the 20,000 peace keepers can use weaponry if required to protect the Congolese people from militia groups
What is unilateral action? What is an example?
Unilateral action is where one country takes economic or militaristic action against another nation state, without UN approval. A clear example of this was the USAs post 9/11 war on terror. In 2003, the USA with an alliance of other western countries invaded Iraq to dethrone Sadam Husain. it was later found out that no such weapon program existed. This significantly destabilised the middle east region
What intervention occurred against russia? What affects did this have
In 2014, following the Russian invasion of Crimera, the usa imposed sectoral sanctions which were not adopted by many Eu countries due to their reliance on russian oil. The impacts of these sanctions were significant:
-70-80 billion dollars left russia
-devaluation of russian currency
When was the IMF founded? What is its purpose?
1944, it’s aim is to ensure global financial stability
When was the world bank founded? What is its purpose?
1944, it’s aim is to ensure global economic development
When was the WTO founded? What are its objectives?
1995, and tries to promote economic liberalisation through the removal of tariffs and protectionist barriers
How could it be said that the IMF, world bank and WTO promote western capitalism?
Each organisation is based on the philosophy of the Washington consensus, promoting the western system of capitalism.
* As the largest donor, the USA has 16.5% of voting rights in the world bank and IMF, so can direct policy initatives to suit their geopolitical objectives.
What are structural adjustments and why were they needed?
Since global interest rates have skyrocketed, many developing countries indebted to the world bank and imf have been unable to py back their loans. The IMF and world bank only agreed to help these countries if they adopted certain policeys known as structural adjustments
What are examples of structural adjustment policies? What is an example of a country adopting these policies?
‘earn more and soend less’
* Reduce government spending and encourage privatisation
* Remove restrictions on the flow of capital and fdi
* devaluing the currency to make exports cheaper (the ghanian cedi was devalued from 2.75 cedi:$ to 246 cedi:$)
These happened to Ghana during the 1980s , and made the exports considerably cheaper for the western world
What is a criticism of the Structural adjustment policies?
That in return for credit, countries are forced to embrace western capitialism and lose economic sovreignty. TNCs can take control over domestic industries, and the country can become reliant on trade (risking countries becoming primary product depenendent.
What is the HIPC initiative?
The highly inddebted poor country initiative was introduced in 1996, and was the medium in which the debt for developing nations would be partially written off, in return for adpopting structural adjustment programs
What must national governments do in return for the cancelation of their debt?
Spend it on programs designed to reduce poverty, or increase access to education or healthcare - reduce protectionist measures and adopt the washington consensus.
How did the HIPC benefit Uganda?
Government debt stood at $1.9 billion in 1992, but in 2000 benefited from a debt wipe off. The affects were immediate - 40% more was spent on education, and 70% more spent on healthcare
How many members does the WTO have?
166
What % of global trade and GDP do WTO nations represent?
over 98%
How do trading blocs bring countries closer to political union?
Centripedal forces, such as the harmonising of economic policy and the adoption of a common currency.
What puts the polital union of trading blocs at risk? What is a recent example of this?
Centrifugal forces - the rise of national populism. For example, Donald trumps promise to implement a 25% tariff on Canada and Mexico (USMCA partners) acts as a serious roadblock.
What was the montreal proticol?
The banning of ODS and CFCs in 1987, due to the worries of the depletion of thre atmosphere. It had 197 signitures and has been a complete success.
Why was the montreal proticol so effective?
- Clear cause and affect relationship
- Global risks were immediate - politicians had an incentive to act now
- Viable alternatives for CFCs were already available
What is CITES?
What is the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
(UNCLOS) is an international treaty that defines the rights and responsibilities of nations concerning the use of the world’s oceans.
● Declares ownership of a state’s seas 20 nautical miles from their land.
● Gives landlocked countries entitlement to seas near them, enabling them to trade.
● Aims to protect marine biodiversity and ocean environments.
What is an example of UNCLOS being used?
he International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) ruled in favor of the Philippines in 2016, declaring that China’s claim to historic rights within the Philippines’ EEZ was not valid under UNCLOS
What was the Helenski water convention?
an agreement that aims to protect and manage shared freshwater resources, specifically transboundary rivers and lakes. It aims to reduce water conflicts through the encouragement of sustainable water useage
What is the he Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
a global initiative launched by the United Nations to assess the state of the Earth’s ecosystems and how changes in these ecosystems affect human well-being. It aimed to provide scientific evidence to guide policies for sustainable ecosystem management. This has been a partial failure, due to the inability of many IGOS to use forceful measures to limit the trade of animals, as well as untying economic growth from enviromental degregation as seen by the Kuznets curve - 2000 animals go extinct every year.
What is the Antarctic treaty system?
The Antarctic Treaty System is an international agreement that ensures Antarctica remains dedicated to peaceful purposes and scientific research, with no territorial claims allowed. In addition, under the Antarctic proticol on enviromental protection (1991), no resource exploitation is allowed until 2041.
How do political parties reinforce nationalism?
The rise of national populist movements all across Europe - Gert Wilders in the Netherlands and the Reform party (14.3% of the vote in 2024). They have proomoted nationalistic messages, such as the concern that the immigration into the uk poses an existential threat to uk culture and our way of life. They have encouraged to take pride in ‘Britishness’ and also promote neo-conservative principles founded in traditional judo-christin morality, often against the principles of a globalised world.
How does education promote nationalism?
How does sport encourage nationalism?
International sporting events vreate feelings of populism in a country - they can group together to support their countries team.
How has national identity been influenced by the English coountryside?
Nationalistic images are often used in times of change or turmoil, so ever since the industrial revolution, the English countryside has been used as a unrealistic, hyopthetical Ideal which portrays the characters of an unchanging England. It was disstinctly used in recruitment posters in WWII, and in works of art since the romantic movement.
What document was the first protection of our rights and is considered the foundation of British Law and values?
The magna carter 1215
How has globalisation made questions over national identity complex?
- As a result of globalisation, countries are now highly interconnected, with flows of labour, capital and culture now considered the norm. The legacy of these movements are that developed countries are now multinational, with a mosaic of different ethnicities. The extent to which this challenges national identiy depends on the rate of assimilation of migrants, and how well there cultures mix
- Some view the values and principles of some ethnic groups - Islamic fundementalist, who believe in less rights for woman for example, are at odds with the essence of what it means to be ‘British’
Why is ‘made in Britain’ an increasingly complex idea?
Increasingly, companies which we have always associate with Britain are not owned by Britain. JLR is owned by Indias Tata motors, HP sauce is owned by an American firm and is made in the Netherlands. EVen our energy is majority owned by foreign companies - Hinkley point C is 66% owned by EDF and the other 33% owned by China.
This means that even if a company still manufactures in the UK, production is often automated and profits are repatriated overseas.
How is westernisation spread?
Entertainment - Walt Disney
Capitalist/consumerrism ideals - Nike/Apple
These massive TNCs spread western values through soft power, subtly influencing people (although this is not a part of a political power ploy). Disney owns 40 radio stations in Spain, and has Disney lands in hong kong and tokyo. For many, a western way of life represents social mobility, and economic success. However, this comes at odds with the national identity of many nations.
Example of government seeking to preserve natinal identity
The Toubon law in France, which mandates that public services and advertisements are in French.
What % of homes in Westminster are foreign owned?
13%
How much of British Airways dooes Qatar own?
25%
Why is increasing foreign ownership seen as a challenge to national identity?
- People may feel we are literally selling parts of a country away. We are sacrificing our economic and national sovreignty. The heart of our democracy and thus our identity in Westminster is partly not even owned by British people.
- If people live in these properties, it can enhance rates of cultural erosion
- The ownership of property can increase property prices, causing gentrification and pushing locals out of the local area.
How much of the Shard is Qatari owned?
95%
Example of a country limiting foreign ownership levels
Singapore - must be a permanent residence and make a ‘adequete contribution to the economy of singapore’
Example of British owned foreign encclaves
British retirees moving to the medditarian, creating a british ethnoscape
Why may a nation wish to be independent?
- Nations may consider themselves culturally different from their nation state
- They may feel decisions are being made too far away from their own boarders
- may have a minority in the nationl government,so political ideology not properly represented
Examples of emerging tensions within emerging nations
Mainly due to the uneven benefits derived from globalisation
