Midterms: Key Terms Flashcards
All circumstances that occur or exist before the event or behavior to be explained
Antecedent conditions
Research that is designed to solve real-world problems
Applied research
Research designed to test theories or to explain psychological phenomena
Basic research
The relation between a particular behavior and a set of antecedents that always precedes it – whereas other antecedents do not – so that the set is inferred to cause the behavior
Cause-and-effect relationship
Every day, nonscientific collection of psychological data used to understand the social world and guide our behavior
Commonsense psychology
Facts and figures gathered from observations in research
Data
The process undertaken to demonstrate that particular behavioral events will occur reliably in certain specifiable conditions; a principal tool of the scientific method
Empirical date
Organized and rational thought, characterized by open-mindedness, objectivity, and parsimony; a principal tool of the scientific method
Good thinking
General scientific principles that explain our universe and predict events
Laws
The systematic estimation of the quantity size or qualify of an observable event; a principal tool of the scientific method.
Measurement
The systematic noting and recording of events; a principal tool of the scientific method
Observation
An aspect of good thinking, stating that the simplest explanation is preferred until ruled out by conflicting evidence; also known as Occam’s razor
Parsimony
A field of study that gives the appearance of being scientific but has no true scientific basis and has not been confirmed using the tools of the scientific method: observation, measurement, and experimentation
Pseudoscience
A controlled procedure in which at least two different treatment conditions are applied to subjects whose behaviors are then measured and compared to test a hypothesis about the effects of the treatments on behavior
Psychology experiment
The process of repeating research procedure to verify that the outcome will be the same as before; a principal tool of the scientific method
Replication
The systematic gathering of data to provide descriptions of events taking place under specific condition, enabling researches to explain, predict, and control events.
Science
Steps scientists take to gather and verify information, answer questions, explain relationships, and communicate findings
Scientific method
The scientific term for an individual who participates in research
Subject
Capable of being tested; typically used in reference to a hypothesis. Three requirements must be met to have a testable hypothesis: procedures for manipulating the setting must exist, and the predicted outcome must be observable and measurable
Testable
A set of general principles that attempts to explain and predict behavior or other phenomena
Theory
A specific set of antecedent conditions created by the experimenter and presented to subjects to test its effect on behavior
Treatment
The concept that all sensate species that feel pain are of equal value and have rights
Animal rights
The humane care and treatment of animals
Animal welfare
The humane care and treatment of animals
Animal welfare
The likelihood of a subject being harmed in some way because of the nature of the research
At risk
The principle of full disclosure at the end of an experiment; that is, explaining to the subject the nature and purpose of the study
Debriefing
The unethical practice of falsifying or fabricating data; plagiarism is also a form of it
Fraud
A subject’s voluntary agreement to participate in a research project after the nature and purpose of the study have been explained
Informed consent
An institutional committee that reviews proposed research to safeguard the welfare of animal subjects
Institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)
An institutional committee that reviews proposed research to safeguard the safety and right of human participants
Institutional review board (IRB)
The subject’s odds of being harmed are not increase by the research
Minimal risk
The representation of someone else’s ideas, words, or written work as one’s own; a serious breach of ethics that can result in legal action
Plagiarism
A determination, made by an IRB, that any risks to the individual are outweighed by potential benefits or the importance of the knowledge to be gained
Risk/benefit analysis
A descriptive method in which already existing records are reexamined for a new purpose
Archival study
The descriptive record of an individual’s experiences, behaviors, or both kept by an outside observer
Case study
A form of case study in which deviant individuals are compare with those who are not to identify the significant differences between them
Deviant case analysis
Contemporary phenomenology that relies on the researcher’s own experiences, experiential data provided by study participants, or other available sources such as literature or popular media; a qualitative approach
Empirical phenomenology
How well the findings of an experiment generalize or apply to people and settings that were not tested directly
External validity
A nonexperimental research method used in the field or in a real-life setting, typically employing variety of techniques, including naturalistic observation and unobtrusive measures or survey tools, such as questionnaires and interviews
Field study
A type of group interview; it is an organized discussion session with a small group of people, usually led by a trained facilitator
Focus group
The certainty that the changes in behavior observed across treatment conditions were actually cause by differences in treatments
Internal validity
A descriptive, monexperimental method of observing behaviors as they occur spontaneously in natural settings
Naturalistic observation
The set of attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures that are generally accepted within a particular discipline at a certain point in time
Paradigm
A special kind of field observation in which the researcher actually becomes part of the group being studied
Participant-observer study
A nonexperimental method of gathering data by attending to and describing one’s own immediate experience
Phenomenology
Research that relies on word rather than numbers for the data being; collected it focuses on self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts
Qualitative research
The tendency of subjects to alter their behavior or responses when they are aware of the presence of an observer
Reactivity
Data collected in the present based on recollections of past events; apt to be inaccurate because of faulty memory, bias, mood and situation
Retrospective data
A system for recording observations; each observation is recorded using specific rules or guidelines, so observations are more objective
Systematic observation
A procedure used to assess subjects’ behaviors without their knowledge; used to obtain more objective data
Unobtrusive measure
A form of probability sampling in which a researcher samples entire clusters, or naturally occurring groups, that exist within the population
Cluster sampling
A system for quantifying responses to open-ended questions by categorizing them according to objective rules or guidelines
Content analysis
The concept that traits, attitudes, and preferences can be viewed as a continuous dimension, and each individual can fall at any point along each dimension; for example, sociability can be viewed as a continuous dimension ranging from very unsociable to very sociable
Continuous dimension
A convenience sample is obtained by using any groups who happen to be convenient; considered a weak form of sampling because the researcher exercise no control over the representativeness of the sample
Convenience sampling (also called ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING)
The measurement of magnitude, or quantitative size, having equal intervals between values but no true zero point
Interval scale
The “hidden meaning” behind a question
Latent content
The type of scale of measurement – ratio, interval, ordinal, or nominal – used to measure a variable
Level of measurement
The plain meaning of the words or questions that actually appear on the page
Manifest content
People who are apt to disagree with a question regardless of its manifest content
Nay-sayers
The simplest level of measurement; classifies items into two or more distinct categories on the basis of some common feature
Nominal scale
Sampling procedures in which subjects are not chosen at random; two common examples are quota and convenience sample
Nonprobability sampling
A measure of magnitude in which each value is measured in the form of ranks
Ordinal scale
All people, animals, or objects that have at least one characteristic in common
Population
When in doubt about answers to multiple-choice questions, some people always select a response in a certain position, such as answer c
Position preference
Selecting samples in such a way that the odds of any subject being selected for the study are known or can be calculated
Probability sampling
The selection of nonrandom samples that reflect a specific purpose of the study
Purposive sampling
Selecting samples through predetermined quotas that are intended to reflect the makeup of the population; they can reflect the proportions of important population subgroups, but the particular individuals are not selected at random
Quota sampling
A table of numbers generated by a computer so that every number has an equal chance of being selected for each position in the table
Random number table
An unbiased method for selecting subjects in such a way that each member of the population has an equal opportunity to be selected, and the outcome cannot be predicted ahead of time by any known law
Random selection
A measure of magnitude having equal intervals between values and having an absolute zero point
Ratio scale
The extent to which a survey is consistent and repeatable
Reliability
The extent to which the sample responses we observe and measure reflect those we would obtain if we could sample the entire population
Representativeness
A tendency to answer questions based on their latent content with the goal of creating a certain impression of ourselves
Response set
A selected subset of the population of interest
Sample of subjects
Deciding who the subjects will be and selecting them
Sampling
The most basic form of probability sampling whereby a portion of the whole population is selected in an unbiased way
Simple random sampling
A form of nonprobability sampling in which a researcher locates one or a few people who fit the sample criterion and asks these people to locate or lead the researcher to additional individuals who fit the criterion
Snowball sampling
A form of probability sample obtained by randomly sampling from people in each important population subgroup in the same proportion as they exist in the population
Stratified random sampling
A useful way of obtaining data about people’s opinions, attitudes, preferences, and experiences that are hard to observe directly; data may be obtained using questionnaires or interviews
Survey research
A variation of random sampling in which a researcher selects every nth person from the population
Systematic random sampling
The extent to which a survey actually measures the intended topic and not something else
Validity
The differences among people in their style of responding to questions they are unsure about; some people will leave these questions blank, whereas others will take a guess.
Willingness to answer
People who are apt to agree with a question regardless of its manifest content
Yea-sayers
Creating and testing models that may suggest cause-and-effect relationships among behaviors
Causal modeling
In a correlational study, an estimate of the amount of variability in scores on one variable that can be explained by the other variable
Coefficient of determination
The degree of relationship between two traits, behaviors, or events, represented by r
Correlation
A study designed to determine the correlation between two traits, behaviors, or events
Correlational study
A method in which the same set of behaviors or characteristics are measured at two separate points in time (often years apart); six different correlations are computed, and the pattern of correlations is used to infer the causal direction
Cross-lagged panel design
A method in which different groups of subjects who are at different stages are measured at a single point in time; a method that looks for time-related changes
Cross-sectional study
A study in which a researcher systematically examines the effects of pre-existing subject characteristics (often called subject variables) by forming groups based on these naturally occurring difference between subjects
Ex post facto study
A correlation-based method for estimating a score on one measured behavior from a score on the other when two behaviors are strongly related
Linear regression analysis
A method in which the same group of subjects is followed and measured at different points in time; a method that looks for changes across time
Longitudinal design
Statistical intercorrelations among three or more behaviors, represented by R
Multiple correlation
A correlation-based technique (from multiple correlation) that uses a regression equation to predict the score on one behavior from scores on the other related behaviors
Multiple regression analysis
The relationship existing between two variables such that an increase in one is associated with a decrease in the other; also called an inverse relationship
Negative correlation
A design in which the researcher compares the effects of different treatment conditions on preexisting groups of participants
Nonequivalent groups design
An analysis that allows the statistical influence of one measured variable to be held constant while computing the correlation between the other two measured variables
Partial correlation
An important correlation-based method in which subjects are measured on several related behaviors; the researcher creates (and tests) models of possible causal sequences using sophisticated correlational techniques
Path analysis
The relationship between two measures such that an increase in the value of one is associated with an increase in the value of the other; also called a direct relationship
Positive correlation
A research design used to assess whether the occurrence of an event alters behavior; scores from measurements made before and after the event (called the pretest and posttest) are compared
Pretest/posttest design
Often seem like (as the prefix quasi- implies) real experiments, but they lack one or more of its essential elements, such as manipulation of antecedents and random assignment to treatment conditions
Quasi-experimental designs
The line of best fit; represents the equation that best describes the mathematical relationship between two variables measured in a correlational study
Regression line
A graph of data from a correlational study, created by plotting pairs of scores from each subject; the value of one variable is plotted on the X (horizontal) axis and the other variable on the Y (vertical) axis
Scatterplot
Relationships between pairs of score from each subject
Simple correlations
The characteristics of the subjects in an experiment or quasi-experiment that cannot be manipulated by the researcher; sometimes used to select subjects into groups
Subject variable
A statement that is always true
Analytic statement
A statement that is always false
Contradictory statement
The process of reasoning from general principles to specific instances; most useful for testing the principles of a theory
Deductive model
Concluding section of the research report, used to integrate, the experimental findings into the existing body of knowledge, showing how the current research advances knowledge, increases generalizability of known effects, or contradicts past findings
Discussion
A statement that is a tentative explanation of an event or behavior; it predicts the effects of specified antecedent conditions on a measured behavior
Experimental hypothesis
A statement that is worded so that it is falsifiable, or disprovable, by experimental results
Falsifiable statement
A statement that leads to new studies
Fruitful statement
The thesis, or main idea, of an experiment or study consisting of a statement that predicts the relationship between at least two variables
Hypothesis
The process of reasoning from specific cases to more general principles to form a hypothesis
Inductive model
Beginning section of a research report that guides the reader toward your research hypothesis; includes a selective review of relevant, recent research
Introduction
The development of ideas from hunches; knowing directly without reasoning from objective data
Intuition
A statistical reviewing procedure that uses data from many similar studies to summarize and quantify research findings about individual topics
Meta-analysis
A statement of predictions of how events, traits, or behaviors might be related, but not a statement about cause and effect
Non experimental hypothesis
A statement that is simple and does not require many supporting assumptions
Parsimonious statement
A periodical that publishes individual research reports and integrative research reviews, which are up-to-date summaries of what is known about a specific topic
Psychological journal
The knack of finding things that are not being sought
Serendipity
A statement that can be either true or false, a condition necessary to form an experimental hypothesis
Synthetic statement
A statement that can be tested because the means exist for manipulating antecedent conditions and for measuring the resulting behavior
Testable statement
Once we believe we know something, we tend to overlook instances that might disconfirm our beliefs, and we seek, instead, confirmatory instances of behavior
Confirmation Bias
