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ENVR201 > Midterm (up until oct.5) > Flashcards

Midterm (up until oct.5) Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the scarcity-development cycle

A
  • New resources “created”
  • Prices fall –> demand rises
  • Easily accessible –> Reserves exhausted
  • Scarcity
  • Prices rise, stimulates R&D
  • Innovations lead to substitution, reuse and recycle
  • etc. (back to the beginning)
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2
Q

Types of resources

A

non-renewable, renewable, recyclable

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3
Q

Non-renewable resources examples

A

petroleum (fossil fuels), coal, natural gas, metals (recycling makes metals semi-renewable)

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4
Q

Non-renewable definition

A

fixed stock
depletable (natural replenishment too slow)
using them permanently depletes resource

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5
Q

Estimated non-renewable resource definition

A

total finite physical quantity

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6
Q

Proven or current non-renewable resource definition

A

known resources profitably extractible given current prices, technology

(we know how, where, how much). Can change with technology and cost

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7
Q

potential non-renewable resource definition

A

profitably extractible at a given price (example: oil sands, energy alternatives)

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8
Q

If prices increase, what happens to proven and potential reserves

A

Proven and potential reserves increase

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9
Q

Reserves

A

measure for availability of resource.

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10
Q

oil in place definition

A

total estimated amount of oil on Earth (producible and non-producible).

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11
Q

oil reserves

A

producible oil

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12
Q

Why is some oil non-producible?

A

reservoir characteristics and limitations in petroleum extraction technologies

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13
Q

recovery factor

A

the ratio of reserves to the total amount of oil in a particular reservoir

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14
Q

4 highest proven oil reserves ranked highest to lowest

A

Venezuela
Saudi Arabia
Canada
Iran

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15
Q

Renewable resources definition

A

natural replenishment at non-negligible useful rate
grow and flow (forests, fish, water, wind, solar)
resources that can be recycled (e.g. metals)
availability (based on regeneration rate)
sustainable yield
common property or public

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16
Q

biological resource

A

renewable resource
wild game
domesticated animals
forest biomass
wild and domestic plants

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17
Q

non-biological resource

A

renewable resource
sunlight, water, winds, and waves

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18
Q

ubiquitous resource

A

available everywhere on the earth
air, water

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19
Q

localized resource

A

available at select locations on earth
Topography, climate and altitude are the major factors which affect the distribution of natural resources

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20
Q

Who said this: “Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence
increases only in an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power in comparison of the second”

A

Malthus
1798

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21
Q

Carrying capacity

A

maximum population that a given area can sustain

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22
Q

carrying capacity for biological species

A

maximum number of individual of that species that the environment can carry and sustain considering its geography or physical features

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23
Q

Maximum sustainable yield (MSY)

A

the largest yield (or catch)
that can be taken from a species’ stock over an indefinite period

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24
Q

Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of a renewable resource

A

the rate at which a resource can be extracted without affecting the ability to continue to extract the resource at that rate indefinitely

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25
Q

ecological deficit

A

when the load imposed by a given human population on its own territory or habitat exceeds the productive capacity of that habitat

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26
Q

overshoot

A

when it exceeds available carrying capacity
impair the longterm productive potential of its habitat, reducing future carrying capacity
may survive temporarily, but eventually crash

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27
Q

Club of Rome’s take on population

A

only solution is to halt population/economic growth
exponential growth with fixed limits
wrongly predicted massive famine

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28
Q

Malthusian view on population

A

graph: leads to food deficit
- linear food production
- exponential pop. growth

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29
Q

Marx and neo-marx view on population

A

population/scarcity of resources are not the problem
distribution is the problem
technological change can overcome these issues

graph:
food production linear with vertical increases due to innovation
pop. growth exponential
always food surplus

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30
Q

Cornucopian, techno-optimist view on population

A

human knowledge and ingenuity is the ultimate resource
population is the solution
more people=more innovation

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31
Q

IPAT

A

an equation to study environmental impact

I=PAT
where, I=impact on ecosystem
P=population
A=affluence
T=technology

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32
Q

Global North

A

Global North: Canada, United States, some of the Caribbean, most of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea

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33
Q

Global North and South based on what?

A

income and standards of living

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34
Q

Population predictions for 2050

A

high=10.6 B
medium 8.9 B
low=7.4 B

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35
Q

How does affluence cause environmental damage?

A

high productivity levels cause greater throughput of materials and energy per person

higher income levels greater consumption of energy and materials (more technology=more energy)

greater throughput more resources used

urbanization disconnects producers and consumers so consumers don’t see the influence of environmental degradation on their lives

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36
Q

How does poverty cause environmental damage?

A

Agriculture: leads to deforestation, topsoil erosion, water contamination, etc.

Worsened by population pressures, lack of control over local resources and poor governance, inability to invest in environment

Industry: inefficient, dirty industry locates where wages and influence over environment are low, cuasing air, land, water pollution.
- cost-based competition
- labour intensive
- low capacity to invest in environment

Continuous of colonization and industrial practices

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37
Q

The demographic equation

A

R=(b-d)+(i-e)
where,
R=pop. growth rate
b=birth rate
d=death rate
i=immigration rate
e=emigration rate

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38
Q

Crude birth rate (CBR)

A

annual number of live births per 1000 population

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39
Q

Crude death rate (CDR)

A

annual deaths per 1000 population

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40
Q

Total fertility rate (TFR)

A

average number of children a woman would likely have during her childbearing years

varies by location and culture

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41
Q

Replacement fertility rate

A

number of children a couple must have to replace themselves

keeping constant pop.
varies depending on infant mortality rate

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42
Q

Assuming there are no migration flows and that mortality rates remain
unchanged, a total fertility rate of how many children per woman generates broad
stability of population?

A

2.1
(0.1 counteracts infant mortality)

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43
Q

Infant mortality rate (IMR)

A

deaths < 1 year old per 1000 live births

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44
Q

Life expectancy at birth

A

average years a new-born infant can expect to live

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45
Q

Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)

A

CBR-CDR

22/1000-12/1000=10/1000=1%

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46
Q

Doubling time

A

years needed to double pop. in size assuming constant RNI

70 / annual growth rate in %

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47
Q

What affects fertility

A

biological factors (age, health, diet)
ecnonomic factors (income)
cultural factors (education, age of marriage, contraceptive use, abortion)

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48
Q

Demographic transition

A

stage 1: pre-industrial CBR=CDR

stage 2: transitional (europeean 1750s), colonization, death rates start to decline due to nutrition, hygiene, public health.
birth rates stay high
CBR»CDR; high pop. growth

But birth rates start declining as people become confident in survival of infants due to reduced IMR

stage 3: industrial, death rates reach minimum with further improvements in public health and health care
birth rates decline further due to reduced need for labour, rising incomes with urbanization
CBR>CDR but pop. growth rate declines

stage 4: post-industrial
CBR=CDR

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49
Q

Demographic trap

A

Countries may be stuck in Stage 2 – CBR&raquo_space; CDR

Low CDR due to improved nutrition, health care
High CBR – rural, subsistence economy → marginal lands →
need for family labour → high birth rates

Vicious circle – environmental degradation → poverty → need for family labour → high birth rates

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50
Q

LIC (low-income countries) pop. pyramid

A

high proportion (30-40%) in reproductive, pre-reproductive groups – momentum)

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51
Q

HIC (high-income countries) pop. pyramid

A

low proportion of youth

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52
Q

pro-natalist policies

A

to control but also boost pop.
immigration (working age)
coercive incentives
- discouraging banning abortions (Romania 1960s)
- baby bonues (Singapore, Qbc)
- taxation policies (tax reductions, credits)
- maternity/paternity leave; child care subsidies

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53
Q

pro-natalist policies motivation

A

declining population
political
military
ethnic

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54
Q

effective ways to control population (without coercion)

A

socio-economic developments:
- female literacy and economic independence
- poverty alleviation, economic security, access to resources
- family planning
- public, primary health servies to reduce IMR

(It is only when these socio-economic conditions are created will there be an
incentive to have fewer children, and the provision of family planning and contraceptives will become useful)

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55
Q

How can we adjust Earth’s carrying capacity?

A

increase capacity by using technology efficiency of resource use, resource substitutions and other innovations

reduce numbers through family planning

decrease demands, change people’s interactions through governance justice and vegeterian diets

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56
Q

Why is renewable energy better

A

no extraction races, decentralized production, sustainable, no GHGs, less pollution

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57
Q

renewable energy sources

A

solar radiation, radioactive decay, tides, earth’s rotational energy

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58
Q

non-renewable sources

A

coal, oil, peat, uranium, gas

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59
Q

energy storages

A

batteries, hydro, liquid fuels, hydrogen, oxidizable metal fuels, pressurized air, liquid salts, trees

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60
Q

which energy sources are the most unsafe and produce the most GHG

A

coal
oil
natural gas
biomass

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61
Q

which energy sources are the most safe and clean

A

solar
nuclear energy
wind
hydropower

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62
Q

examples of the tragedy of the commons (name at least 3)

A

overgrazing
water pollution
nuclear arms race
overfishing
overpopulation

63
Q

how is overpopulation a collective action problem

A

Benefit to having more children are greater for the household than the consequences of overpopulation (on the family)

Understanding this problem doesn’t change the dynamic
Always faced with the same incentives no matter how much you know about it

64
Q

what is a collective action problem

A

occurs when
There is a pro-social action (P) which individuals can take. It has a cost to them, but it has a benefit for everyone
Each individual is worse off if they take the action (P) when it is independent of others’ actions
All individuals are better off if everyone takes the action (P)
The private cost (c) of (P) is grater than the private benefit (b), but
The social benefit (B) of P is greater than the private cost
b<c<B

65
Q

what is the prisoner’s dilemma

A

the “socially optimal” outcome is for all players to cooperate
for any individual player, the non-cooperative action is preferred no matter what other players choose to do (a “dominant” strategy)

simple collective action problem for two people

66
Q

what is the tragedy of the commons

A

similar to prisoners dilemma but with many players

67
Q

solutions to solving collective action problems

A

coercion
hard incentives
take away freedom

Sometimes the better collective outcome is to stop people “taking” or “polluting”; sometimes it is to get them to
contribute more to a public good

68
Q

why does playing on people’s conscience not work when trying to solve collective action problems

A

telling them they are stupid
the incentives remain the same
individual action has low impact

69
Q

what do we mean when we say that the commons are both sinks and sources

A

oceans can be a sink (dumping waste), but can also be a source (fishing)

open access

70
Q

externality definition

A

the cost (negative externality) or benefit (positive externality) that affects a party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit

71
Q

net social cost definition

A

sum of own net cost plus all net costs to all others

plus sum of all negative externalities minus all positive externalities

72
Q

net social benefit

A

-1 x net social cost

73
Q

rivarlous definition

A

cannot be fully used or enjoyed by more than one person at once

74
Q

non-rivalrous definition

A

when its use by one person doesn’t diminish the possibility of others using it too

75
Q

excludable definition

A

its properties are conducive to controlling its use

76
Q

non-excludable

A

it is hard to stop any given person from using or consuming it

77
Q

excludable rivalrous goods

A

private good (food, clothing, furniture, toys, cars)

78
Q

excludable non-rivalrous goods

A

club good (cable television, cinemas, private parks)

79
Q

non-excludable rivalrous goods

A

common pool resources (fish, hunting game, water, and air as dumping ground, oceans, coals)

80
Q

non-excludable non-rivalrous goods

A

(pure) public goods (national defense, free-to-air television, climate, music, poetry, knowledge)

81
Q

private good definition

A

A good that could easily be privatised because it is excludable and is sensibly privately owned by an individual because it is rivalrous

82
Q

club good definition

A

It is natural to share a club good among a group (because it is non-rivalrous) but can feasibly be owned because it is excludable

83
Q

pure public good

A

A pure public good is one which is free to reproduce or is otherwise non-rival and will always be available to everyone because it is
non-excludable

84
Q

common-pool resources

A

These goods are rival but cannot be controlled, rationed, or conserved because they are non-excludable

85
Q

What caused the collapse of Newfoundland Cod

A

In 1951, factory fishing is introduced (supertrawlers)
productions increases dramatically
loss of huge amounts of cod, but also bycatch
disruptions to food supply and complex mutli-species interactions
mismanagement (overly optimistic quotas)
collapse in 1992 –> fishing ban

86
Q

What percentage of animal protein eaten by humans do marine sources provide?

A

20%
another 5% is provided indirectly via livestock fed with fish

87
Q

What percentage of fish consumption is by the developing world?

A

60%

88
Q

How many people rely on fish as their primary source of protein in Asia?

A

1 billion

89
Q

The fishing enterprise employs how many people worldwide?

A

200 million

90
Q

Atlantic cod declined by how much between 1968-1992?

A

almost 70%

91
Q

Pole and line definition

A

used to catch fish one at a time
small bait fish scattered onto the surface of the water
creates illusion of a school of fish which target species can prey on
low bycatch so often a sustainable method of small-scale fishing

92
Q

Longline defition

A

trail a long line behind a boat
baited hooks atached to nets at intervals to attract target fish
used for pelagic (midwater) or demersal (bottom) fishing
can have unintended impact on non-target fish, birds, and other life

93
Q

gillnets definition

A

a wall or curtain of net that hangs in the water
size of the fish caught depends on size of the net meshing
hard to target specific bish –> high bycatch
low environmental impact with little contact with seabed

94
Q

purse seine definition

A

used for dense schools of single-species fish
vertical net surrounds school of fish, then bottom drawn together
bycatch low and no contact with seabed

95
Q

pots and traps definition

A

made from wood wire or plastic
used to catch crustaceans such as lobsters and crabs
deployed on seabed for 24 hours

96
Q

pelagic trawl definition

A

cone-shaped and closed at one end to trap fish
pulled through midwaters (not seabed)
acoustic technology locates the position and depth of target fish
risk of bycatch (but methods are often emplyed to limit)

97
Q

dredging definition

A

rigid structures towed along the seabed
dislodged shellfish as it drags over sediment
high ecological damage

98
Q

bottom trawl definition

A

pulled just above or on seabed
very efficient in capturing large numbers of fish
can have large impacts through bycatch and seabed damage

99
Q

Order from most to least sustainable (dredging, gillnets, pole and line, bottom trawl, pelagic trawl, pots and traps, longline, purse seine)

A

pole and line
longline
gillnets
purse and seine
pots and traps
pelagic trawl
dredging
bottom trawl

100
Q

Carrying Capacity

A

The number of individuals which
can be supported in a given area
within natural resource limits and
without degrading the natural,
cultural and economic environment
for present and future generations

The carrying capacity is different
for each species in a habitat
because of that species’ particular
food, shelter, and social
requirements

101
Q

overfished definition

A

this is sometimes termed ‘overexploited’. These are fish stocks where we catch fish faster than these populations can reproduce. As a result, populations decline and stocks become
depleted to levels lower than the most productive level. This is unsustainable

102
Q

Maximally sustainably fished definition

A

this has sometimes been termed
‘fully fished’ or ‘fully exploited’ in the past. These terms might be interpreted negatively by some, but actually this is the ‘sweet spot’
that fisheries are aiming for.
This is the maximum sustainable yield, where we’re catching as much fish as possible without reducing fish populations below the most productive level.

103
Q

underfished definition

A

this is when fish catch is less than the reproduction rate of fish populations. We could catch more fish without fish populations declining. From a resource point-of-view this is suboptimal because we’re missing out on a key food source and income from fishing communities

104
Q

Why is it difficult to determine MSY in the fisheries context?

A

difficult telling age, strength, male/female
methodological limitations (sampling, etc.)
difficult to count fish

105
Q

Where on the population pyramid (of fish) would fishing be most hazardous in terms of future yield?

A

young and female (because only females can lay eggs) (bottom right)

106
Q

How does overcapacity drive overfishing

A

too much freedom
open access regimes
technology

107
Q

Contributory factors to depletion of oceans

A

growing demand
ghost fishing
non-selective gear
drift nets
high levels of bycatch

108
Q

Why are bycatch laws effective?

A

If fishers have a quota or limit on how much fish they can catch, they have to be much more careful about bycatch. These unwanted fish will still count towards their quota for the day.

109
Q

How to limit bycatch

A

selective gear
strong fisheries policies (monitoring and enforcement)

110
Q

Impacts of marine aquaculture

A

antibiotics fed to fish
fish can escape and affect local systems (invasive species and preying on local fish)
fish sewage (excrements and parasites)

111
Q

Impact of climate change on fishing (rishing water temperatures)

A

fish move towards polar areas
fish size increase
rising seas inundae mangroves/marshes
increases in zooplankton

112
Q

Which fishing method is associated with the higher amount of bycatch

A

shrimp trawl

113
Q

What are some strategies devised to limit overfishing?

A

Individual transferable quota (ITQ)
exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
limited derby or season
reserves
equipment or effort constraints
taxes
retraining programs
selective gear
polluter pays principle (PPP)

114
Q

Precautionary Principle definition

A

even without scientific proof, society should take action when there is the potential of irreversible consequences

115
Q

Why is farm raised catfish preferable to farm raised salmon?

A

catfish require less feed

116
Q

True or False, MSY is an important concept in both fisheries and agriculture?

A

False, agriculture is human-made. Farmers can harvest all their food, without the limitations of harvesting “too much”.

117
Q

Roughly how much of worldwide water use goes to irrigation of agricultural crops?

A

70%

118
Q

Rank the following foods (lowest to highest) in terms of water efficiency (wheat, pork, potato, rice, poultry)

A

pork, poultry, rice, wheat, potato

119
Q

List policies that can increase water efficiency

A

increasing water price
transferring water management to locals instead of governments
adapting irrigation techniques (drip-irrigation)
moving down the food chain

120
Q

What is the percentage of global GHG emissions that livestock is responsible for?

A

18%

121
Q

Food miles definition

A

the distance travelled by food items from the farm to the consumer
importance related to GHG, air pollution, energy, traffic congestion

122
Q

What was the first agricultural revolution

A

Neolithic Revolution

123
Q

Neolithic Revolution

A

10 000 years ago
ocurred independently in 4-5 places
used of plow, draft animls, irrigation
seed selection, cuttings,
led to sedentary civilizations

124
Q

When is the second agriculture revolution? What distinguishes it?

A

1800s
Concurrent with industrial revolution in Western Europe
demands from growing urban and industrial population
shift away from feudal and subsitence agriculture
enclosed lands
new crops (potato)
commercial market for food
transportation technology

125
Q

What was the third agricultural revolution

A

green revolution

126
Q

Green revolution

A

1930-1970s
mechanization
synthetic fertilizer
food manufacturing (processing, canning, refining, packing)
industrialization of agriculture (impacts on rural labour, fertilizers, hybrid seeds, agrochemicals, artifical subsitutes)
export of technology and high-yielding seeds to LIC

127
Q

Green Revolution impact on diet and nutrition

A

nutrition improved due to growth in food production/capita and low prices
food consumption increase

128
Q

Food security

A

when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life
includes both physical and economic access to food that meets people’s dietary needs as well as their food preferences

129
Q

What are the three pillars of food security

A

food availability: sufficient qties of food available on a consistent basis
food access: having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet
food us: appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care, as well as adequate water and sanitation

130
Q

What is putting presusre on food

A

rising income (more meat–higher on the food chain)
urbanization (consumption pattern)
biofuels (ethanol takes up 20% of american corn harvest)
population growth (debatable)
urban sprawl
climate change

131
Q

Solutions to increase land productivity

A

double cropping
fertilizers

132
Q

True of False: Most of the worldwide soybean harvest goes directly to feeding humans

A

false

133
Q

intensification definition

A

increase output from a given area of land

134
Q

extensification definition

A

expand area over which we grow our food

135
Q

broadacre city

A

U.S.
based on giving every household an acre of land
futuristic (private owned helicopter)
large lots of residences
privately owned land

136
Q

garden cities

A

change in land use
polluting areas far from where people live
different locations for schools, residences, workplaces, factories, etc.
canal and rail transport

137
Q

Radiant City

A

build high towers connected by highway structures
Paris

138
Q

Why did cities develop

A

location, trade, protection, exchange of ideas, efficiency

139
Q

Approximately what proportion of the world’s population lives in cities?

A

about 55%

140
Q

Approximately what proportion of the world’s population lives in cities in Canada?

A

about 80%

141
Q

Urban area definition criteria

A

administrative criteria or political boundaries
a threshold population size
economic function
the presence of urban characteristics (paved streets, electric lighting, sewerage)

142
Q

Criteria to measure sustainability of cities

A

car usage
home size (energy needed to heat/cool) –> energy efficiency
electricity use
public transit mode

143
Q

According to Glaeser, what methods can determine how sustainable cities are?

A

Calculate carbon emissions from four different sources: home heating (fuel oil and natural gas), electricity, driving, and public transportation

144
Q

Glaesers arguments

A

land-use restrictions raise the risks of global warming. Pushes people toward high-emissions areas and away from green ones.
limiting the height or growth of NYC skyscrapers incurs environmental costs. Building more apartments will make the city more affordable, and also reduce global warming.
living in the country is not the right way to care for the Earth. The best thing that we can do for the planet is build more skyscrapers.

145
Q

why is rural living less sustainable than urban living?

A

car dependency
redundancy of infrastructures (kms of roads, water and sweage lines, electricty/capita)
single family homes are less efficient to heat than apartments

146
Q

What is the main argument of Wachsmuth et al’s paper “Expand the Frontiers of Urban SUstainability”

A

need to address equity, affordability, off-site emissions, urban heat island, waste management

147
Q

Forces that lead to urbanization

A

agriculture: the agriculturral revolutions led directly to urbanization. As production increased, there was a surplus of food which gave the opportunity for people to do other things with their lives rather than be farmers or live in the city.

technological revolution

commercial revolution: refers to different forms of trade, long-distance trading networks allows cities to develop and increase

Efficiency of transportation: short and lont-term transport (within a city and from one to another)

Demographic Revolution: increase in population, cities are much more efficient places to hold a lot of people

148
Q

How did the post-Neolithic revolution participate in urbanization?

A

allowed the expansion of population and enormously increased the carrying capacity of suitable land.

Human ingenuity changing the carrying capacity of a land. More surplus of food, more stationary/sedentary developments

149
Q

Issues with urban sprawl

A

single-use zoning
difficult to walk/cycle –> car dependency
increase the per-user costs of providing public services such as water supply, sanitation, electrcity, public transportation, waste management, policing –> much more expensive to provide in fragmented areas of low-density.
this entails that either the quality of these services will be low or that significant subsidies will be required to cover the costs of provision.

150
Q

Define sprawl

A

preferences for living in low density areas
land-use regulation
progress in car manufacturing
low motor fuel taxes
policies encouraging car use

151
Q

Goal definition

A

broad but specific qualitative statements about objectives

152
Q

indicators definition

A

quantitative measures selected to assess progress toward or away from a stated goal
what we measure

153
Q

targets definition

A

use indicators to make specific desired endpoints
almost always have a quantifying amount or timeframe (example years)

154
Q

Name the 7 indicators or urban sprawl

A

average urban pop. density: average # of inhabitants in a km^2 of land of an urban area

pop-to-density allocation: the share of pop. living in areas where pop density is below a certain threshold

land-to-density allocation: the share of urban footprints of areas where pop. density lies below a certain threshold

variation of urban pop. density: the degree to whcih pop density varies across the city

fragmentation: the # fragments of urban fabric per km^2 of built-up area

polycentricity: the # of high-density peaks in an urban area

decentralisation: the % of pop. residing outside the high-density peaks of an urban area

ENVR201 (3 decks)

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