Midterm (up until oct.5) Flashcards
1
Q
Describe the scarcity-development cycle
A
- New resources “created”
- Prices fall –> demand rises
- Easily accessible –> Reserves exhausted
- Scarcity
- Prices rise, stimulates R&D
- Innovations lead to substitution, reuse and recycle
- etc. (back to the beginning)
2
Q
Types of resources
A
non-renewable, renewable, recyclable
3
Q
Non-renewable resources examples
A
petroleum (fossil fuels), coal, natural gas, metals (recycling makes metals semi-renewable)
4
Q
Non-renewable definition
A
fixed stock
depletable (natural replenishment too slow)
using them permanently depletes resource
5
Q
Estimated non-renewable resource definition
A
total finite physical quantity
6
Q
Proven or current non-renewable resource definition
A
known resources profitably extractible given current prices, technology
(we know how, where, how much). Can change with technology and cost
7
Q
potential non-renewable resource definition
A
profitably extractible at a given price (example: oil sands, energy alternatives)
8
Q
If prices increase, what happens to proven and potential reserves
A
Proven and potential reserves increase
9
Q
Reserves
A
measure for availability of resource.
10
Q
oil in place definition
A
total estimated amount of oil on Earth (producible and non-producible).
11
Q
oil reserves
A
producible oil
12
Q
Why is some oil non-producible?
A
reservoir characteristics and limitations in petroleum extraction technologies
13
Q
recovery factor
A
the ratio of reserves to the total amount of oil in a particular reservoir
14
Q
4 highest proven oil reserves ranked highest to lowest
A
Venezuela
Saudi Arabia
Canada
Iran
15
Q
Renewable resources definition
A
natural replenishment at non-negligible useful rate
grow and flow (forests, fish, water, wind, solar)
resources that can be recycled (e.g. metals)
availability (based on regeneration rate)
sustainable yield
common property or public
16
Q
biological resource
A
renewable resource
wild game
domesticated animals
forest biomass
wild and domestic plants
17
Q
non-biological resource
A
renewable resource
sunlight, water, winds, and waves
18
Q
ubiquitous resource
A
available everywhere on the earth
air, water
19
Q
localized resource
A
available at select locations on earth
Topography, climate and altitude are the major factors which affect the distribution of natural resources
20
Q
Who said this: “Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence
increases only in an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power in comparison of the second”
A
Malthus
1798
21
Q
Carrying capacity
A
maximum population that a given area can sustain
22
Q
carrying capacity for biological species
A
maximum number of individual of that species that the environment can carry and sustain considering its geography or physical features
23
Q
Maximum sustainable yield (MSY)
A
the largest yield (or catch)
that can be taken from a species’ stock over an indefinite period
24
Q
Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of a renewable resource
A
the rate at which a resource can be extracted without affecting the ability to continue to extract the resource at that rate indefinitely
25
ecological deficit
when the load imposed by a given human population on its own territory or habitat exceeds the productive capacity of that habitat
26
overshoot
when it exceeds available carrying capacity
impair the longterm productive potential of its habitat, reducing future carrying capacity
may survive temporarily, but eventually crash
27
Club of Rome's take on population
only solution is to halt population/economic growth
exponential growth with fixed limits
wrongly predicted massive famine
28
Malthusian view on population
graph: leads to food deficit
- linear food production
- exponential pop. growth
29
Marx and neo-marx view on population
population/scarcity of resources are not the problem
distribution is the problem
technological change can overcome these issues
graph:
food production linear with vertical increases due to innovation
pop. growth exponential
always food surplus
30
Cornucopian, techno-optimist view on population
human knowledge and ingenuity is the ultimate resource
population is the solution
more people=more innovation
31
IPAT
an equation to study environmental impact
I=PAT
where, I=impact on ecosystem
P=population
A=affluence
T=technology
32
Global North
Global North: Canada, United States, some of the Caribbean, most of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea
33
Global North and South based on what?
income and standards of living
34
Population predictions for 2050
high=10.6 B
medium 8.9 B
low=7.4 B
35
How does affluence cause environmental damage?
high productivity levels cause greater throughput of materials and energy per person
higher income levels greater consumption of energy and materials (more technology=more energy)
greater throughput more resources used
urbanization disconnects producers and consumers so consumers don't see the influence of environmental degradation on their lives
36
How does poverty cause environmental damage?
Agriculture: leads to deforestation, topsoil erosion, water contamination, etc.
Worsened by population pressures, lack of control over local resources and poor governance, inability to invest in environment
Industry: inefficient, dirty industry locates where wages and influence over environment are low, cuasing air, land, water pollution.
- cost-based competition
- labour intensive
- low capacity to invest in environment
Continuous of colonization and industrial practices
37
The demographic equation
R=(b-d)+(i-e)
where,
R=pop. growth rate
b=birth rate
d=death rate
i=immigration rate
e=emigration rate
38
Crude birth rate (CBR)
annual number of live births per 1000 population
39
Crude death rate (CDR)
annual deaths per 1000 population
40
Total fertility rate (TFR)
average number of children a woman would likely have during her childbearing years
varies by location and culture
41
Replacement fertility rate
number of children a couple must have to replace themselves
keeping constant pop.
varies depending on infant mortality rate
42
Assuming there are no migration flows and that mortality rates remain
unchanged, a total fertility rate of how many children per woman generates broad
stability of population?
2.1
(0.1 counteracts infant mortality)
43
Infant mortality rate (IMR)
deaths < 1 year old per 1000 live births
44
Life expectancy at birth
average years a new-born infant can expect to live
45
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)
CBR-CDR
22/1000-12/1000=10/1000=1%
46
Doubling time
years needed to double pop. in size assuming constant RNI
70 / annual growth rate in %
47
What affects fertility
biological factors (age, health, diet)
ecnonomic factors (income)
cultural factors (education, age of marriage, contraceptive use, abortion)
48
Demographic transition
stage 1: pre-industrial CBR=CDR
stage 2: transitional (europeean 1750s), colonization, death rates start to decline due to nutrition, hygiene, public health.
birth rates stay high
CBR>>CDR; high pop. growth
But birth rates start declining as people become confident in survival of infants due to reduced IMR
stage 3: industrial, death rates reach minimum with further improvements in public health and health care
birth rates decline further due to reduced need for labour, rising incomes with urbanization
CBR>CDR but pop. growth rate declines
stage 4: post-industrial
CBR=CDR
49
Demographic trap
Countries may be stuck in Stage 2 – CBR >> CDR
Low CDR due to improved nutrition, health care
High CBR -- rural, subsistence economy → marginal lands →
need for family labour → high birth rates
Vicious circle -- environmental degradation → poverty → need for family labour → high birth rates
50
LIC (low-income countries) pop. pyramid
high proportion (30-40%) in reproductive, pre-reproductive groups -- momentum)
51
HIC (high-income countries) pop. pyramid
low proportion of youth
52
pro-natalist policies
to control but also boost pop.
immigration (working age)
coercive incentives
- discouraging banning abortions (Romania 1960s)
- baby bonues (Singapore, Qbc)
- taxation policies (tax reductions, credits)
- maternity/paternity leave; child care subsidies
53
pro-natalist policies motivation
declining population
political
military
ethnic
54
effective ways to control population (without coercion)
socio-economic developments:
- female literacy and economic independence
- poverty alleviation, economic security, access to resources
- family planning
- public, primary health servies to reduce IMR
(It is only when these socio-economic conditions are created will there be an
incentive to have fewer children, and the provision of family planning and contraceptives will become useful)
55
How can we adjust Earth's carrying capacity?
increase capacity by using technology efficiency of resource use, resource substitutions and other innovations
reduce numbers through family planning
decrease demands, change people's interactions through governance justice and vegeterian diets
56
Why is renewable energy better
no extraction races, decentralized production, sustainable, no GHGs, less pollution
57
renewable energy sources
solar radiation, radioactive decay, tides, earth's rotational energy
58
non-renewable sources
coal, oil, peat, uranium, gas
59
energy storages
batteries, hydro, liquid fuels, hydrogen, oxidizable metal fuels, pressurized air, liquid salts, trees
60
which energy sources are the most unsafe and produce the most GHG
coal
oil
natural gas
biomass
61
which energy sources are the most safe and clean
solar
nuclear energy
wind
hydropower
62
examples of the tragedy of the commons (name at least 3)
overgrazing
water pollution
nuclear arms race
overfishing
overpopulation
63
how is overpopulation a collective action problem
Benefit to having more children are greater for the household than the consequences of overpopulation (on the family)
Understanding this problem doesn't change the dynamic
Always faced with the same incentives no matter how much you know about it
64
what is a collective action problem
occurs when
There is a pro-social action (P) which individuals can take. It has a cost to them, but it has a benefit for everyone
Each individual is worse off if they take the action (P) when it is independent of others' actions
All individuals are better off if everyone takes the action (P)
The private cost (c) of (P) is grater than the private benefit (b), but
The social benefit (B) of P is greater than the private cost
b
65
what is the prisoner's dilemma
the "socially optimal" outcome is for all players to cooperate
for any individual player, the non-cooperative action is preferred no matter what other players choose to do (a "dominant" strategy)
simple collective action problem for two people
66
what is the tragedy of the commons
similar to prisoners dilemma but with many players
67
solutions to solving collective action problems
coercion
hard incentives
take away freedom
Sometimes the better collective outcome is to stop people “taking” or “polluting”; sometimes it is to get them to
contribute more to a public good
68
why does playing on people's conscience not work when trying to solve collective action problems
telling them they are stupid
the incentives remain the same
individual action has low impact
69
what do we mean when we say that the commons are both sinks and sources
oceans can be a sink (dumping waste), but can also be a source (fishing)
open access
70
externality definition
the cost (negative externality) or benefit (positive externality) that affects a party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit
71
net social cost definition
sum of own net cost plus all net costs to all others
plus sum of all negative externalities minus all positive externalities
72
net social benefit
-1 x net social cost
73
rivarlous definition
cannot be fully used or enjoyed by more than one person at once
74
non-rivalrous definition
when its use by one person doesn’t diminish the possibility of others using it too
75
excludable definition
its properties are conducive to controlling its use
76
non-excludable
it is hard to stop any given person from using or consuming it
77
excludable rivalrous goods
private good (food, clothing, furniture, toys, cars)
78
excludable non-rivalrous goods
club good (cable television, cinemas, private parks)
79
non-excludable rivalrous goods
common pool resources (fish, hunting game, water, and air as dumping ground, oceans, coals)
80
non-excludable non-rivalrous goods
(pure) public goods (national defense, free-to-air television, climate, music, poetry, knowledge)
81
private good definition
A good that could easily be privatised because it is excludable and is sensibly privately owned by an individual because it is rivalrous
82
club good definition
It is natural to share a club good among a group (because it is non-rivalrous) but can feasibly be owned because it is excludable
83
pure public good
A pure public good is one which is free to reproduce or is otherwise non-rival and will always be available to everyone because it is
non-excludable
84
common-pool resources
These goods are rival but cannot be controlled, rationed, or conserved because they are non-excludable
85
What caused the collapse of Newfoundland Cod
In 1951, factory fishing is introduced (supertrawlers)
productions increases dramatically
loss of huge amounts of cod, but also bycatch
disruptions to food supply and complex mutli-species interactions
mismanagement (overly optimistic quotas)
collapse in 1992 --> fishing ban
86
What percentage of animal protein eaten by humans do marine sources provide?
20%
another 5% is provided indirectly via livestock fed with fish
87
What percentage of fish consumption is by the developing world?
60%
88
How many people rely on fish as their primary source of protein in Asia?
1 billion
89
The fishing enterprise employs how many people worldwide?
200 million
90
Atlantic cod declined by how much between 1968-1992?
almost 70%
91
Pole and line definition
used to catch fish one at a time
small bait fish scattered onto the surface of the water
creates illusion of a school of fish which target species can prey on
low bycatch so often a sustainable method of small-scale fishing
92
Longline defition
trail a long line behind a boat
baited hooks atached to nets at intervals to attract target fish
used for pelagic (midwater) or demersal (bottom) fishing
can have unintended impact on non-target fish, birds, and other life
93
gillnets definition
a wall or curtain of net that hangs in the water
size of the fish caught depends on size of the net meshing
hard to target specific bish --> high bycatch
low environmental impact with little contact with seabed
94
purse seine definition
used for dense schools of single-species fish
vertical net surrounds school of fish, then bottom drawn together
bycatch low and no contact with seabed
95
pots and traps definition
made from wood wire or plastic
used to catch crustaceans such as lobsters and crabs
deployed on seabed for 24 hours
96
pelagic trawl definition
cone-shaped and closed at one end to trap fish
pulled through midwaters (not seabed)
acoustic technology locates the position and depth of target fish
risk of bycatch (but methods are often emplyed to limit)
97
dredging definition
rigid structures towed along the seabed
dislodged shellfish as it drags over sediment
high ecological damage
98
bottom trawl definition
pulled just above or on seabed
very efficient in capturing large numbers of fish
can have large impacts through bycatch and seabed damage
99
Order from most to least sustainable (dredging, gillnets, pole and line, bottom trawl, pelagic trawl, pots and traps, longline, purse seine)
pole and line
longline
gillnets
purse and seine
pots and traps
pelagic trawl
dredging
bottom trawl
100
Carrying Capacity
The number of individuals which
can be supported in a given area
within natural resource limits and
without degrading the natural,
cultural and economic environment
for present and future generations
The carrying capacity is different
for each species in a habitat
because of that species’ particular
food, shelter, and social
requirements
101
overfished definition
this is sometimes termed ‘overexploited’. These are fish stocks where we catch fish faster than these populations can reproduce. As a result, populations decline and stocks become
depleted to levels lower than the most productive level. This is unsustainable
102
Maximally sustainably fished definition
this has sometimes been termed
‘fully fished’ or ‘fully exploited’ in the past. These terms might be interpreted negatively by some, but actually this is the ‘sweet spot’
that fisheries are aiming for.
This is the maximum sustainable yield, where we’re catching as much fish as possible without reducing fish populations below the most productive level.
103
underfished definition
this is when fish catch is less than the reproduction rate of fish populations. We could catch more fish without fish populations declining. From a resource point-of-view this is suboptimal because we’re missing out on a key food source and income from fishing communities
104
Why is it difficult to determine MSY in the fisheries context?
difficult telling age, strength, male/female
methodological limitations (sampling, etc.)
difficult to count fish
105
Where on the population pyramid (of fish) would fishing be most hazardous in terms of future yield?
young and female (because only females can lay eggs) (bottom right)
106
How does overcapacity drive overfishing
too much freedom
open access regimes
technology
107
Contributory factors to depletion of oceans
growing demand
ghost fishing
non-selective gear
drift nets
high levels of bycatch
108
Why are bycatch laws effective?
If fishers have a quota or limit on how much fish they can catch, they have to be much more careful about bycatch. These unwanted fish will still count towards their quota for the day.
109
How to limit bycatch
selective gear
strong fisheries policies (monitoring and enforcement)
110
Impacts of marine aquaculture
antibiotics fed to fish
fish can escape and affect local systems (invasive species and preying on local fish)
fish sewage (excrements and parasites)
111
Impact of climate change on fishing (rishing water temperatures)
fish move towards polar areas
fish size increase
rising seas inundae mangroves/marshes
increases in zooplankton
112
Which fishing method is associated with the higher amount of bycatch
shrimp trawl
113
What are some strategies devised to limit overfishing?
Individual transferable quota (ITQ)
exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
limited derby or season
reserves
equipment or effort constraints
taxes
retraining programs
selective gear
polluter pays principle (PPP)
114
Precautionary Principle definition
even without scientific proof, society should take action when there is the potential of irreversible consequences
115
Why is farm raised catfish preferable to farm raised salmon?
catfish require less feed
116
True or False, MSY is an important concept in both fisheries and agriculture?
False, agriculture is human-made. Farmers can harvest all their food, without the limitations of harvesting "too much".
117
Roughly how much of worldwide water use goes to irrigation of agricultural crops?
70%
118
Rank the following foods (lowest to highest) in terms of water efficiency (wheat, pork, potato, rice, poultry)
pork, poultry, rice, wheat, potato
119
List policies that can increase water efficiency
increasing water price
transferring water management to locals instead of governments
adapting irrigation techniques (drip-irrigation)
moving down the food chain
120
What is the percentage of global GHG emissions that livestock is responsible for?
18%
121
Food miles definition
the distance travelled by food items from the farm to the consumer
importance related to GHG, air pollution, energy, traffic congestion
122
What was the first agricultural revolution
Neolithic Revolution
123
Neolithic Revolution
10 000 years ago
ocurred independently in 4-5 places
used of plow, draft animls, irrigation
seed selection, cuttings,
led to sedentary civilizations
124
When is the second agriculture revolution? What distinguishes it?
1800s
Concurrent with industrial revolution in Western Europe
demands from growing urban and industrial population
shift away from feudal and subsitence agriculture
enclosed lands
new crops (potato)
commercial market for food
transportation technology
125
What was the third agricultural revolution
green revolution
126
Green revolution
1930-1970s
mechanization
synthetic fertilizer
food manufacturing (processing, canning, refining, packing)
industrialization of agriculture (impacts on rural labour, fertilizers, hybrid seeds, agrochemicals, artifical subsitutes)
export of technology and high-yielding seeds to LIC
127
Green Revolution impact on diet and nutrition
nutrition improved due to growth in food production/capita and low prices
food consumption increase
128
Food security
when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life
includes both physical and economic access to food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences
129
What are the three pillars of food security
food availability: sufficient qties of food available on a consistent basis
food access: having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet
food us: appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care, as well as adequate water and sanitation
130
What is putting presusre on food
rising income (more meat--higher on the food chain)
urbanization (consumption pattern)
biofuels (ethanol takes up 20% of american corn harvest)
population growth (debatable)
urban sprawl
climate change
131
Solutions to increase land productivity
double cropping
fertilizers
132
True of False: Most of the worldwide soybean harvest goes directly to feeding humans
false
133
intensification definition
increase output from a given area of land
134
extensification definition
expand area over which we grow our food
135
broadacre city
U.S.
based on giving every household an acre of land
futuristic (private owned helicopter)
large lots of residences
privately owned land
136
garden cities
change in land use
polluting areas far from where people live
different locations for schools, residences, workplaces, factories, etc.
canal and rail transport
137
Radiant City
build high towers connected by highway structures
Paris
138
Why did cities develop
location, trade, protection, exchange of ideas, efficiency
139
Approximately what proportion of the world's population lives in cities?
about 55%
140
Approximately what proportion of the world's population lives in cities in Canada?
about 80%
141
Urban area definition criteria
administrative criteria or political boundaries
a threshold population size
economic function
the presence of urban characteristics (paved streets, electric lighting, sewerage)
142
Criteria to measure sustainability of cities
car usage
home size (energy needed to heat/cool) --> energy efficiency
electricity use
public transit mode
143
According to Glaeser, what methods can determine how sustainable cities are?
Calculate carbon emissions from four different sources: home heating (fuel oil and natural gas), electricity, driving, and public transportation
144
Glaesers arguments
land-use restrictions raise the risks of global warming. Pushes people toward high-emissions areas and away from green ones.
limiting the height or growth of NYC skyscrapers incurs environmental costs. Building more apartments will make the city more affordable, and also reduce global warming.
living in the country is not the right way to care for the Earth. The best thing that we can do for the planet is build more skyscrapers.
145
why is rural living less sustainable than urban living?
car dependency
redundancy of infrastructures (kms of roads, water and sweage lines, electricty/capita)
single family homes are less efficient to heat than apartments
146
What is the main argument of Wachsmuth et al's paper "Expand the Frontiers of Urban SUstainability"
need to address equity, affordability, off-site emissions, urban heat island, waste management
147
Forces that lead to urbanization
agriculture: the agriculturral revolutions led directly to urbanization. As production increased, there was a surplus of food which gave the opportunity for people to do other things with their lives rather than be farmers or live in the city.
technological revolution
commercial revolution: refers to different forms of trade, long-distance trading networks allows cities to develop and increase
Efficiency of transportation: short and lont-term transport (within a city and from one to another)
Demographic Revolution: increase in population, cities are much more efficient places to hold a lot of people
148
How did the post-Neolithic revolution participate in urbanization?
allowed the expansion of population and enormously increased the carrying capacity of suitable land.
Human ingenuity changing the carrying capacity of a land. More surplus of food, more stationary/sedentary developments
149
Issues with urban sprawl
single-use zoning
difficult to walk/cycle --> car dependency
increase the per-user costs of providing public services such as water supply, sanitation, electrcity, public transportation, waste management, policing --> much more expensive to provide in fragmented areas of low-density.
this entails that either the quality of these services will be low or that significant subsidies will be required to cover the costs of provision.
150
Define sprawl
preferences for living in low density areas
land-use regulation
progress in car manufacturing
low motor fuel taxes
policies encouraging car use
151
Goal definition
broad but specific qualitative statements about objectives
152
indicators definition
quantitative measures selected to assess progress toward or away from a stated goal
what we measure
153
targets definition
use indicators to make specific desired endpoints
almost always have a quantifying amount or timeframe (example years)
154
Name the 7 indicators or urban sprawl
average urban pop. density: average # of inhabitants in a km^2 of land of an urban area
pop-to-density allocation: the share of pop. living in areas where pop density is below a certain threshold
land-to-density allocation: the share of urban footprints of areas where pop. density lies below a certain threshold
variation of urban pop. density: the degree to whcih pop density varies across the city
fragmentation: the # fragments of urban fabric per km^2 of built-up area
polycentricity: the # of high-density peaks in an urban area
decentralisation: the % of pop. residing outside the high-density peaks of an urban area
