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Semantics > Midterm study materials > Flashcards

Midterm study materials Flashcards

1
Q

Behaviorism

A
  • Previously, human behavior viewed as mind, animal behavior viewed as instinct
  • Obvserved human behavior from introspection
  • Behavioralism rejected unobservable data, only observable was scientific study
  • Confined to studying stimulus and response elicited
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2
Q

Structuralism

A
  • Immediate constituency analysis

- Bloomfeld

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3
Q

Ethology

A
  • Study of animal behavior from zoology
  • Innate vs learned fixed action patterns
  • Model- experience-> innate endowment->capacity
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4
Q

Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz

A

-devised in order to give a mathematical characterization of the notation of classical quantificational logic.

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5
Q

Yehoshua Bar-Hillel

A

-Better exploration of how categorical grammar might apply to natural language

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6
Q

Leonard Bloomfield

A
  • Paninis bitch
  • syntax in addition to paninis morph and phonology
  • Viewed study of language (linguistics) as special branch of psychology
  • Sought to make linguistics scientific by recasting it as behavioral psychology
  • Structuralism
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7
Q

Noam Chomsky

A

-Anti-behavioralism, new moderl based on language acquisition device

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8
Q

Zellig Harris

A

-Furthered Bloomfield’s work

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9
Q

Charles Hockett

A

-Furthered Bloomfield’s work

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10
Q

Joachim Lambek

A

-Calculus- explains recursive expressions of natural language and is a generalization of categorical grammar

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11
Q

Panini

A

-First generative grammar for sanskrit 500 BCE

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12
Q

Ferdinand de Saussure

A
  • Beginning of 20th century

- Synchronic vs diachronic

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13
Q

B F Skinner

A

-Behavioral Psychologist

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14
Q

Alfred Tarski

A

-Model theory

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15
Q

Nikolaas Tinbergen

A
  • Zoologist

- Ethology grew out of his work

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16
Q

John Watson

A

-Behavioralism

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17
Q

Rulon Wells

A

-Furthered bloomfield’s work

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18
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

-Established psychology as empirical science, independent of philosophy

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19
Q

Critical period

A

-The life stage when an animal needs a certain stimulus in order to develop the capacity

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20
Q

Competence vs Performance

A

Competence- language stored inside mind

Performance- observable production of language

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21
Q

Deprivation experiment

A
  • Deprive animal of stimulus during critical period and see if behavior still happens
  • If yes, it’s innate. if no, it’s learned
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22
Q

Diachronic vs synchronic

A
  • Diachronic- change over time

- Synchronic- at specific point in time

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23
Q

Fixed action pattern

A
  • Sequence of actions for example way a bird builds a nest

- Ethology studies innate vs learned

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24
Q

Language acquisition device/ language faculty

A
  • Chomsky

- Experience -> LAD -> grammatical competence

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25
Q

Distinctive properties of human language behavior

A
  • Monkeys- discrete, definite expressions
  • Honey bees- dance- indescrete, indefinite
  • Humans- discrete, indefinite
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26
Q

Basic insights into language found in Indian grammatical tradition

A
  • 4000 rules
  • Phonological features
  • Phonological rules (context)
  • Theta roles
  • First generative grammar
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27
Q

Features of linguistic inquiry (minimal pairs)

A

-All items in sentences are alike except 1 from each, allows us to compare function of 2 constituents in identical environments

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28
Q

Poverty of the stimulus

A
  • Chomsky
  • Hearing stimuli of spoken language is not enough for child to acquire grammatical competence. Must be something innate in humans that allows us to learn language
  • Language structure more complex and systematic than sound waves we hear
  • Children acquire competence in short time without hearing a lot of spoken lang
  • Children hearing different stimuli still arrive at same grammatical competence
  • Rules for competence not taught
  • Lang acq separate from childs motivation, personality, genetics
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29
Q

Criticism of poverty of stimulus

A
  • No special LAD, part of humans general ability to learn

- Maybe you can learn complex language structure out of acoustic signal

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30
Q

Generative grammar vs grammar

A

-Generative- finite set of rules that can be used to create every possible expression in the language

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31
Q

Immediate constituency analysis

A
  • Every complex expression can be divided into subexpressions until minimal constituents
  • Can more or less mix and match constituents and sentence still acceptable
  • Infinite num of expressions from finite set of rules and lexical items
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32
Q

Formation rules

A
  • Figure out how language is put together in your own words
  • pay attention to what expressions are allowed and what not allowed- this is conditions for formation rules
  • Write formation rule with memorized format- just how lang is put together not what it means
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33
Q

Valuation rule

A

-Write valuation rule that includes same condition as formation rule but it tells you values/ meanings of expressions

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34
Q

Model theory

A
  • Tarski

- Studies how meanings of constituents makes up meaning of complex expressions

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35
Q

Set

A

-Collection of members. Always abstract

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36
Q

Members

A

-Things in the set. members can be concrete or abstract

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37
Q

Ways to define set

A
  • List membership- let set be {a,b,c,d}

- Abstract notation- let set be {x:is a chair in this room}

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38
Q

Terms in set theory

A
  • Capital letters refer to sets
  • A,B,C- Sets are fixed names- if refer to A again, same A as first time
  • XYZ- sets are variables, X can refer to new set or same set
  • Lower case letters sets or not sets
  • x,y,z variables, a,b,c fixed
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39
Q

Important sets

A 
N- natural numbers
Z- integers
Z+- positive integers
Z-- negative integers
E- is a member of
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40
Q

Cardinality

A
  • The size of a set. How many membrs it has. 2 straight lines show cardinality |{a,b}| = 2.
  • Count number of objects named not just symbols (if a is twice, only count once)
  • ø or{} means empty set
41
Q

Types of sets

A

-Singleton sets- 1 number
-Doubleton sets- have 2 numbers
-Sets can have sets as members {N,Z-,Z+}
V= universe of discourse

42
Q

A⊆B

A

-A is Subset of or equal to B

43
Q

Subject transitivity

A

if x⊆y and y⊆z then x⊆z

-R is transitive iff x,y,x ED, xRy, yRz, then xEz

44
Q

Antisymmetry

A

ƒ

-R is antisymmetric iff for every x, yE D iff xRy and yRx then x = y

45
Q

Reflexivity

A

X⊆X

Logical truth

46
Q

Disjointedness

A
  • X is disjointed from Y if there is no member that belongs to X and Y
  • X∩Y=ø
47
Q

Set union

A

-∪
Member x is member of X ∪ Y iff x is a member of x or a member of y
-Like adding together

48
Q

Difference

A

x is a member of X-Y iff x is a member of X but not Y

49
Q

Complementation

A

-Complement- everything in V besides the thing

50
Q

Cartesian product

A
  • Binary operation on sets
  • result is set of ordered pairs
  • {a,b}x{1,2} = {<a>,<b>}</b></a>
  • AXB not same as BXA</b></a>
51
Q

Family of sets

A

-Set where sets are members

52
Q

Power set operation

A
  • Takes set, makes family of sets
  • Collets into 1 set possible subsets of set
  • Pow{1,2} = {ø,{1},{2},{1,2}}
  • Every set is a member of own power set
  • Empty set is member of every power set
53
Q

Binary operations

A
  • Take to sets, yield a set

- Operations of families of sets- take family, yield a set

54
Q

Generalized Union

A
  • Uz= {x:xEY for some YEZ}

- UZ contains all members of subsets that are contained within Z

55
Q

Generalized intersection

A
  • ∩z ={x:xEY for each YEZ}

- ∩z only contains those elements which are a member of every subset within z

56
Q

Generalized cartesian product X

A

-Applies to family of sets and makes set of ordered pairs or triples or n-tuples

57
Q

Relations

A
  • Contains a number of instances, not same thing as instances
  • Binary relation- has pairs as instances, triple relation has triples as instances
58
Q

Graph

A
  • Relations graphs is the set of all instances
  • Relations domain is background set from which the members of graph are drawn
  • Relation on a set is relation seen against background of set
59
Q

2 ways to show relations visually

A
  • Matrix

- Directed graph

60
Q

Reflexivity relation

A
  • Relation R is reflexive iff for every XED, xRx

- is a member of the set

61
Q

Irreflexivity

A

R is irreflexive iff there is no XED , xRx

- is not member of set

62
Q

Symmetry

A

R is symmetric iff for every x, yED if xRy then yRx

63
Q

Asymmetry

A

-For every x, yED if xRy then not yRx

64
Q

Intransitivity

A

-R is intransitive iff for every x,y,z ED, if xRy and yRz then it is not true that xRz

65
Q

Connectedness

A
  • R is connected iff for every x,y E D, where x =/=z, then either xRy or yRx
  • Is less than
66
Q

Binary relations from set to a set

A
  • Domain- set of things related to co-domain- domain member = argument = pre-image
  • Co-domain- set of things related to domain - codomain member = value = image
  • Graph- actual pairings between domain and codomain
67
Q

Left totality

A
  • Each member of domain bears some relation to some member of codomain
  • Existence
68
Q

Right totality

A
  • Each member of codomain has some relation to domain

- Surjection

69
Q

Left monogamy

A
  • All of domain has only one relation to something on codomain
  • Uniqueness
70
Q

Right monogamy

A
  • All of codomain has only one relation to something on domain
  • Injections
71
Q

Function

A
  • Binary relation which is both left total and left monogamous
  • Fuction f:X->Y
  • 3 ways to display function with finite graph
  • Bipartite graph
  • Table
  • Vertical list
72
Q

Rule of association

A

-Calculate any ordered pair in function, shown with arrow

73
Q

Bijection

A

-Right total and right monogamous

74
Q

Constant functions

A

-Every element in domain maps to same one element in codomain

75
Q

Partial functions

A

-Not necessarily functions because they are left monogamous but not left total

76
Q

Extension of a function

A
  • Original domain, codomain, and graph are subsets of new function’s domain, codomain, graph
  • Opposite is a restriction- new domain etc is the subset
77
Q

Near variant function

A
  • One function is near variant of another iff they have same domain and codomain, graphs differ from one another by max 1 ordered pair
  • f sub 1 ↦2
78
Q

Characteristic functions (Chr)

A
  • Function that describes contents of each subset of a power set
  • Domain of chr is all the things in the subsets
  • Codomain is 0,1 0 means not present, 1 means present
79
Q

Product functions

A
  • Makes two functions work in tandem
  • Delta assigns each natural number to a number twice itself
  • Sigma assigns every letter of alphabet letter after itself
  • Product of delta and sigma is
  • Work in tandem on ordered pair of elements, where first is from the domain of delta and second is domain of sigma
  • From example above, <5,b> gives <10,c>
80
Q

English Nouns

A

-Grammatical number, case (nominative, objective, posessive- mostly personal pronouns), gender

81
Q

Copular verbs

A

-Verbs like to be and to become

82
Q

Predicate nominatives

A

Nouns which follow copular verbs (Soccer is A SPORT)

83
Q

Apposition

A

-A noun that further specifies another noun is in apposition to the first noun (Paul, my brother)

84
Q

Objective complement

A
  • We consider them OUR FRIENDS
  • Our friends not apposition
  • Also adjectives- bill considers the house large.
85
Q

Pronouns

A
  • Personal (I,we,you)
  • Relative (who, which, that)
  • Interrogative pronouns (what, who)
  • Demonstrative (this, that, those)
  • Indefinite (anyone, somebody)
  • Reflexive (-self)
  • Reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another)
86
Q

Types of adjectives

A
  • Modifier (large apple)
  • Predicate (apple is large)
  • Objective complement (Considers the house large)
  • Comparative and superlatives (some periphrastic- more attractive)
  • Pronominal adj- same categories as pronouns
87
Q

Limitations of traditional English grammar

A
  • Nothing attempts to characterize recursive structure of English
  • Nothing attempts to show how meaning of smaller expressions contribute to meaning of larger expressions
  • o clear and systematic criteria whereby it characterizes its fundamental concepts
88
Q

Constituency analysis rules

A

-Bill laughed vs The guest laughed
NP1: NP-> N(p)
NP2: NP->Dt N(c)
N(c)->AP N(c)

89
Q

Definition of constituency grammar

A
  • Non-empty, finite set of expressions
  • Non-empty, finite set of categories
  • Non-empty, finite set of ordered pairs (category, item)
  • Non-empty finite set of synthesis rules
90
Q

Constituents of a language rules

A
  • Each lexical entry is a constituent
  • If C1…Cn->C is a rule, and e1|C1 …. en|Cn are constituents, then e1….en|C is in CSG
  • Nothing else in CS
91
Q

Amphiboly

A

-When an expression accommodates more than one constituency analysis

92
Q

Issue with number agreement

A
  • Constituency grammars do not accommodate agreement in grammatical number
  • Need to double categories to accommodate for sing. and plural for Nouns and verbs
  • Need to double rules as well
  • Complex category label in form of ordered pair dogs (Nc,p)
  • Adapted notation: dogs|Nc;p
  • Add x to synthesis rules to show that agreement is necessary
93
Q

Issue with subcategorization

A
  • Use subscripts to denote subcategories

- Need to distinguish verbs by what kind of complement they require

94
Q

Issue with phrasal and lexical categories

A

-In formal rules A->B etc., nothing shows connection between first and second part of the rule (in informal the connection can be seen)

95
Q

Acceptability vs grammaticality

A
  • the car walked- grammatical but unacceptable - acceptability determined by speakers
  • animality vs not doesnt work (complex)
96
Q

Types of discontiguity

A
  • English verbs associated with adverbs (to wake up, to wake someone up)
  • Wrapping- head of modifier on one side, complement of modifier on other side. (a good enough job to pass inspection)
  • Extraposition- modifier appears at end of clause (an article appeared in the newspaper about malaria)
  • preposing- entire verb phrase precedes subject and aux verb- ben promised to finish his paper and finish his paper he will
  • PPpreposing (near the door colleen saw a spider)- PP at beginning of clause
  • Topicalization- (the new painting by picasso bill thinks alice likes very much)
  • Easy or tough movement- (that theory was thought to be easy to prove)
  • Wh movement
97
Q

Transformational rules

A
  • More powerful than constituency rules
  • Set of expressions generated by CR proper subset of TR
  • In same sentences- a review of bleak house appeared vs a review appeared of bleak house, CR does not indicate same meaning
  • Deep structure vs surface structure
  • Surface structures of these sentences (made by CR) differ, but deep structure made by TR are the same, showing common meaning
  • Add in trace coindexed with dislocated constituent
98
Q

Limits on recursion

A
  • With right embedded recursion, no limit to number of times recursed
  • With left embedded recursion, there is a limit.

Semantics (2 decks)

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