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Semantics > Final study cards > Flashcards

Final study cards Flashcards

1
Q

Cotext

A

text which comes before or after utterance

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2
Q

Circumstances of utterance

A

-physical circumstances in which expression is uttered

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3
Q

exophor

A

expression whose full understanding requires knowledge of the setting in which they are uttered (your and my)

  • character- invariant aspect
  • person, time,spacial
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4
Q

content

A

-meaning of utterance when it is filled out by a suitable knowledge of the setting in which it is used

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5
Q

Endophora

A

-dependence- third person personal pronoun
-endophor/ proform- words exhibiting this dependence
“He was driving it today”
-demonstrative, “one”, it, he/she/they, “the bastard”, “so”, “there”, “such”
-Can be any constituent, antecedent can be anything,
-Most common- third person pronoun

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6
Q

Ellipsis

A

-dependence
-“Ed a porsche”
=Not a full constituent
-Varies with what preceding clause presents
-Fails to convey a proposition unless in the presence of another constituent

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7
Q

Antecedent

A

-relevant portion of the cotext necessary for full understanding

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8
Q

Gapping

A

-Ellipsis
- two constituents, neither of which is a constituent of the other
-correspond to first and final constituents of sentence before
“Peter saw the movie and susan ___ the play”

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9
Q

Interrogative ellipses

A

-Ellipses
-Antecedent entire clause,
-Ellipses for interrogative constituent, standing for ind clause
“Ed bought a mercedes”
“Where ____”

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10
Q

Verb phrase ellipses

A
  • ellipses
  • VP is antecedent
  • The man who promised to bring wine will.
  • to do can be used
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11
Q

Copular complement ellipses

A

-ellipses
-verb to be in context
“Bill is fond of cheese and mary is ____ too”

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12
Q

Appended coordination

A
  • Ellipses
  • One or two phrases appended, often introduced by a coordinating conjunction (and, but)
  • Fred goes to the cinema but __ seldom __ with his friends
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13
Q

Nominal ellipses

A

Antecedent noun phrase, defective expression is one containing constituent that is a sister to the noun
“Colleen ate two large cookies and evan ate three”

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14
Q

Ambiguity

A

use of alternate truth value judgement to determine ambiguity relies on fixed state of affairs and fixed setting, while use of alternate truth judgement to determine exophora relies on a change in setting and cotext

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15
Q

Implicature

A
  • “i have a cat” implies i do not have 20 cats

- enrichment which is obtained on the basis of utterances literal meaning as well as beliefs about maxims

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16
Q

Entailment

A
  • relation between a set of statements and a single statement- “all men are mortal socrates is a man” entails “socrates is mortal”
  • Can be once sentence “wellington was taller than napoleon” entials “napoleon was shorter than wellington”
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17
Q

Cooperation

A
  • maxim

- one should make ones contribution such as is required, by the accepted purpose or direction of the conversation

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18
Q

Quality

A
  • Maxim

- One should have adequate evidence for what one says, should not say what one believes is false

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19
Q

Quantity

A

-Maxim, One should contribute as much information as is required for purpose of conversation

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20
Q

Relevance

A

-ones remarks should be relevant

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21
Q

Manner

A

-One should be perspicuous- brief orderly, clear, unambiguous

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22
Q

Non-conventionality

A
  • Conversational implicatures not conventional
  • Can have implicature in some situations, not in others
  • Not same as idioms
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23
Q

Non-detachability

A
  • implicatures invariant under paraphrase

- Ex. sarcastic “bill is genius” same implicature as sarcastic “bill is mental prodigy”

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24
Q

Derivability

A

-Implicatures Can by characterized by form of reasoning

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25
Q

Cancellability

A

-Implicatures can be undone or cancelled by further information

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26
Q

Implicature ambiguity

A

-When ambiguity is solved by additional sentence, literal meaning not changed but implicatures can be

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27
Q

presupposition

A

-supposes previous information to make sense- did you quit smoking presupposes that you used to smoke

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28
Q

Triggers of presupposition

A
  • again, even, still, too
  • various verbs - continue, desire, admit, return
  • cleft
  • if
  • when/ since
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29
Q

valid arguement

A

truth of premisses guarantees truth of conclusion

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30
Q

denial of the antecedent

A

fallacy- if p then q, it is not the case that p, then not q

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31
Q

modus tollens

A

if p then q, not q, then not p

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32
Q

syncategorematic defintion of set of formulae

A
  • all propositional variabls are formulae
  • any formula with not is a formula and a pair of formulae with connector and enclosed with parenthesis is a formula
  • nothing else is a formula
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33
Q

categorematic definition of set of formulae

A
  • adds category of UC (unary connective like not), and BC binary connective
  • otherwise same as syncategorematic
34
Q

atomic formulae (AF) vs composite formulae (CF) vs basic formulae (BF)

A
  • Atomic- just PV
  • CF- more complex
  • BF- atomic + negations
35
Q

immediate subformula

A

-one formula is immediate subformula if it can either be prefixed by negation or paired with another formula and BC +parenthesis to form the second

36
Q

proper subformula

A

-immediate subformula or immediate subformula of immediate subformula etc

37
Q

subformula

A
  • proper subformula or the whole equation
38
Q

scope of propositional connective

A

scope of occurance of prop connective is subformula which contains the prop connective but whose subformulae do not

39
Q

parenthesis abbreviation

A
  • omit for whole formula

- omit for conjuncts of conjunct, adjuncts of adjuncts

40
Q

truth value assignment

A 
function from domain (PV) to codomain including {T,F}
-bivalent assignment- truth value assignment whose co domain is only t and f
41
Q

valuation

A

any function where domain is FM and codomain includes T and F
-classical valuation- valuation that conforms to connective true and false values

42
Q

extention to a classical valuation (syncategorematic)

A

a bivalent assignment classically extends to a unique classical valuation

43
Q

extention to a classical valuation( categorematic

A

o sub not, o sub V, o sub ^ etc,

44
Q

satisfaction

A

bivalent assignment a and each formula x, a satisfies x iff va(x) = T

for a and set of formulae y, a satisfies y iff for each xEy, va(y) = T

  • for bivalent ass. a, and formula y, a satisfies y iff a satisfies {y}
  • bivalent assignment satisfies empty set
45
Q

tautology

A

-formula is tautology iff each bivalent assignment satisfies it

46
Q

contradiction

A

-formula is a contradiction iff each bivalent assignment doesnt satisfy it

47
Q

contingency

A

a formula is a contingency iff some bivalent assignment satisfies it, some does not

48
Q

satisfiability

A
  • formula satisfiable if some bivalent assignment satisfies it
  • formuale set satisfiable if some bivalent ass satisfies it
  • y satisfieable if {y} satisfiable
  • each subset of satisfiable set is satisfiable
  • empty is satisfiable
49
Q

unsatisfiability

A

formula is unsatisfiable if no biv ass satisfies it, set same

y is unsatis. iff {y} is unsatis.

each superset of unsatisfiable set forms unsatis. set

FM is unsatisfiable

50
Q

semantic equivelence

A

set of formula or formula is sem. equivalent if each biv ass satisfies former and latter

  • all tautologies are sem equiv
  • all tautologies are sem equiv to empty set
  • all contr. and sets of contr. are sem equiv
  • all contr and sets of contr are sem equiv to FM
51
Q

entailment (formula)

A

a and b are formulae, x and y are sets
if a E x then x entails a
if c subs y and x entails a, y entails a
x U {a} entails b iff x entails a then b
x entails a and b iff x entails a and x entails b

52
Q

Coordinators vs Subordinators

A 
C S
intrusion N N
connect verb phrases Y N
admits gapping Y N
may iterate N Y
initial in compound clause N Y
53
Q

syndetic vs asyndetic coordination

A

-syndetic uses “and” while asyndetic uses none

54
Q

CPDL

A

-classical predicate logic
=basic expressions are predicates (relational symbols) (constants) and idividual symbols rather than PV
-

55
Q

CPDL notation

A
  • Adicity- CPDL term for number of places relational symbol has (transitivity)
  • IS- individual symbols
  • RS- relational symbols
56
Q

CPDL Signature

A

let (IS, RS, ad) be a sig for CPDL iff IS and RS are disjoint sets and ad is a function from RS into Z+

57
Q

Atomic formula of CPDL

A

n place relational symbol followed by n occurences of individual symbols

58
Q

Formula of CPDL

A
  • Atomic formula
  • if a E FM and b E FM then ab E FM
  • if a, b E FM and c E BC, a c b E FM
59
Q

Other CPDL terms

A

-Basic formula, immediate subformula, proper subformula, scope definition all same as CPL

60
Q

problems with english and and ^ comparisson

A
  • Mary does too and peter owns a car bad, flipped is good.
  • and can be “and then”
  • all issues with and also happen without and in ; sentences- more issues with maxims, presupposition, etc.
61
Q

coordination of nondeclarative clauses by and/ or/ if

A
  • no truth value to question or command, but and still works for them, so and is different than ^
  • hard to explain what and means in this context, but imperative compliance conditions and interrogative answerhood conditions can be seen as like truth values
  • c-entailment (compliance) allows for entailment relation without declarative truth value (same with a-entailment)
62
Q

coordination of an imperative and a declarative by and / or/ if(or NP and declarative)

A
  • paraphrase of if then statement

- –> instead of ^

63
Q

Problems with or/V

A
  • apparent exclusivity of or
  • exclusivity is an implicature (can be cancelled by follow up sentence
  • can also be explained by 2 meanings of or
  • apparent non-commutability- can be solved with “or rather” or “or else”
64
Q

apparent synonymity of or and and

A

-either you may have coffee or you may have tea does entail both parts (may just be implicatures)

65
Q

conditional clauses

A

-if sentences
=protasis (subordinate)
=apodosis (main clause)
-more or less corresponds to –>

66
Q

prolems with if/–>

A
  • negation of conditionals0 it is not the case that, if god is dead, everything is permitted doesn’t ential god is dead
  • non-declaratives
  • subjenctuve conditionals- counterfactual (would have)
  • austinian conditionals- if it snows, tehre is a shovel in the trunk.
67
Q

adjunctive vs disjuctive subordinator

A

-adjunctive- cleft, pseudo-cleft, form a single clause answer, can be immediately preceded by focus adverb, may form question, can be immediately preceded by not

68
Q

not syntax

A
  • it is not the case that same as UC not
  • not is often adverb
  • more restricted in finite than infinite clauses, except with to be
  • can be used as implicature, to deny presupposition
69
Q

CQL

A

-quantificational logic
-CPDL but with variables, A, E
=binding
-closed (no unbound) vs open
-alphabetical variants- terms with quantifiers same regardless of variable, not true with un-quantified

70
Q

syncategorematic definitions of valuation of CQL

A
  • medieval valuations - each corresponds with and while some corresponds with or. everything must be finite and named individually, if repeats it doesnt work. valuation departs from the synthesis tree of a formula once truth value has to be assigned a subformula whose main LC is a quantifier
  • marcus valuations- finite universes- Universally A formula is true iff each substitution instance is true in it. E formula is true iff a substitution works
  • fregean valuations- to see if AxPx is true, substitute every possible value of a for a, check them all
  • Tarski- variable assignment and defined truth in a structure at variable assignment, only one where domain s the set of all formulae, open and closed
71
Q

Satisfaction

A
  • (M,g) satisfies a iff [a]M,g = T
  • true with set
  • (M,g) satisfies Ø, (M,g) satisfies a iff (M,g) satisfies {a}
72
Q

Properties of CQL

A

-tautology, contradiction, contingency, satisfiability, unsatisfiability, semantic equivelence

73
Q

Minimal clause

A

clause in declarative mood with smallest number of minimal constituents.
-Constituent has a head and complements

74
Q

complement polyvalence

A

-many verbs with a complement admit different syntactic categories as the complement (appeared for ex)

75
Q

complement permutation

A
  • verb that admits complement permutation- for alice has to become an NP (just alice) to switch the order in “bill bought alice a dog”
  • or alternation like Alice blamed bill FOR the accident, alice blamed the accident ON bill
76
Q

Verb phrase

A
  • optional complements
  • also reflexive polyadic verbs, reciprocal polyadic verbs
  • indefinite polyadic (to read)
  • contextual polyadic- when relevant complement is omitted, verb behaves endo/exophorically
  • Causative polyadic- melt
  • mid
77
Q

Adj Phrase

A
  • may be modifiers or predicates, some adj can only be one, some can be both
  • No compliment like dead
  • PP compliment like averse to
  • S- unsure where it is raining
  • Some polyadic like happy
  • reciprocal polyadic adj
  • often different meanings of adj w diff adicity
78
Q

Prepositions

A
  • many take NP compliments, some take S compliments
  • optional compliment- in - he ran in
  • Polyadic P only contextual
  • Complementless- afterwards, downstairs, soon
79
Q

Nouns

A

-None, two, three- (two and three generally start with PP) ex. the gift to alice of the book by bill.

80
Q

Constituency grammar with enriched categories

A
  • basic lexical categories (A Adv N P V S,
  • phrasal category is a pair comprising a basic lexical category and empty sequence A:().
  • Complement list etiher empty or sequence of categories
  • can also be a set (for polyadic)
  • 2 sets for permutable
81
Q

Semantic rule format

A

Let (U,i) be a structure for an English lexicon.

If e | NP and f | VP then v(ef|S) = true iff v(e|NP) ⊆ v(f|VP)

Semantics (2 decks)

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