Midterm Study Guide Flashcards
1
Q
What is the endoplasmic reticulum?
What are the two types of ER?
What are the functions of the two types of ER?
A
Folded network of lipid bi-layer
Rough ER - Dotted with Ribosomes, Manufactures fat-loving proteins
Smooth ER - No Ribosomes, Manufactures phospholipids, steroids, fatty acids and modifies proteins manufactured in the rough ER
2
Q
What are the three types of cell junctions?
Which one is watertight?
Which type is connected to the cytoskeleton?
Which allows passage of cytosol, ions, and small molecules from one cell to another?
A
Tight Junctions: Water tight - hold liquid
Desmosomes: Hold cells together, hook into the cytoskeleton
Gap Junctions: Allow passage of Cytosol, Ions, and Small Molecules
3
Q
What effect does concentration of substrate have on a reaction?
A
Low concentrations of either substrate or enzyme will result in relatively low rates of product turnover.
Increasing concentration of substrate will increase turnover until all enzymes are occupied with substrate.
4
Q
In which direction does matter and energy move relative to its concentration gradient in diffusion?
A
Matter wants to move down concentration gradient from high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached
5
Q
What is fermentation? What are the two products of fermentation that we studied? Which type of fermentation are certain cells of the human body able to perform?
A
Where an organic molecule becomes the ultimate electron acceptor rather than molecular oxygen - the final pathway in fermentation is Glycolysis (not an electron transport chain, which is where it differs from Anaerobic) -
- Lactic Acid Fermentation - produces lactate as final product
- Alcoholic Fermentation - produces alcohol as final product
Muscle cells - perform lactic acid fermentation when they are oxygen deprived, resulting in lactate
6
Q
What is cellular respiration?
A
Organisms release the stored energy from fueled sources in a complex series of reactions — this is known as cellular respiration
7
Q
What is activation energy?
A
Energy needed to start a chemical reaction
8
Q
What is a catalyst? What effect does a catalyst have on a reaction?
A
Catalyst, substance that:
- Lowers the activation energy of a reaction
- Speeds up a reaction (often by orders or magnitude)
- Is not changed by the reaction
9
Q
What is active transport? What are the different types?
A
Primary Active Transport: transmembrane pump. Uses energy to move materials across a membrane Endocytosis: Vesicle Into a cell Exocytosis: Vesicle out of a cell
10
Q
What is enzyme specificity?
A
Most (not all) enzymes are highly specific for their substrates
Usually only work on one substrate unless it’s putting two molecules together, “lock and key model”
11
Q
What are the primary components of membranes?
A
MOSTLY lipid molecules (bilipid)
Some embedded protein
Small amount of carbohydrate
12
Q
In what forms are carbohydrates found in membranes? What is their major function?
A
Glycolipids – one or more sugar molecules bonded to a lipid
Glycoproteins — one+ sugar molecules bonded to a protein
They serve as identity markers and recognition sites and identify other substances/foreign substances
13
Q
What is a plasma membrane composed of?
Cytoplasm?
A
Plasma Membrane - Lipid Bi-layer + Some proteins and Carbs
Cytoplasm - Cytosol (mostly water) and Organelles and other suspended particles (anything between the plasma membrane and the nucleus)
14
Q
What process do cells use to break down fatty acids? What happens to glycerol molecules from triglycerides?
A
Fatty acids undergo a process called β-oxidation to produce acetyl groups that are transported to the Krebs Cycle by coenzyme A
Glycerol can be converted into one of the intermediate molecules of glycolysis and is then metabolized in the process of glycolysis.
15
Q
What are the three major functions of enzymes?
A
1. Building larger molecules (anabolic reactions – i.e. dehydration synthesis)
2. Breaking down larger molecules (catabolism – i.e. hydrolysis)
3. Rearranging atoms or groups of atoms within the molecule being acted upon – changing one isomer to another
16
Q
What is meant by the term “amphipathic”?
A
Amphipathic (or Amphiphilic) contains regions that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic so they can exist with both
17
Q
What are the three states of matter in living systems? Which has the most kinetic energy? The least?
A
Solid - least kinetic energy, can’t move, only vibrate (potential energy)
Liquid
Gas - most kinetic energy, moving
(Plasma)
18
Q
What are the nutritional categories into which organisms are classified?
A
Photoautotroph – green plants that photosynthesize, photosynthetic bacteria
Photoheterotroph – all examples are prokaryotes – can use light, but need organic molecules for carbon
Chemoautotroph – all examples are prokaryotes, bacterial that live in ocean around thermal vents – no light/blackness
Chemoheterotroph – fungi, all animals (including humans), some bacteria
19
Q
What is a ligand?
A
Signaling molecule - binds to another molecule to communicate
Binding of a ligand to a receptor changes its shape or activity, allowing it to transmit a signal or directly produce a change inside of the cell
20
Q
What is a nucleoid?
A
The non-membrane version of a Nucleus that consists of bundled genetic materal in a Prokaryotic cell
21
Q
What are the parts of a cell?
A
- CYTOPLASM
- PLASMA MEMBRANE
- NUCLEUS
22
Q
What is enzyme competition?
A
Enzymatic competition – occurs when more than one enzyme can act on a particular substrate
23
Q
What are the three components of the cytoskeleton? What are the functions of each?
A
Microtubules - Act as highways, tiny little tube roads, for transport proteins, allow separation of chromosomes during cell division, and allow movement of cilia and flagella (Centrosome - center connection of the Microtubules)
Microfilaments - double helix made of protein actin, Provide support and movement
Intermediate Filaments - made of variety of proteins, Tough supporting frameworks, scaffold to hold organelles in place and help two cells attach to each other
24
Q
What are the two general types of transport in biological systems? Which one requires the input of energy?
A
Passive Transport - utilizes natural gradients
Active Transport - Requires energy usually in the form of ATP
25
What is the structure of the nucleus?
* Nuclear Envelope (Membrane, with pores)
* Chromatin
* Nucleolus
26
What are 4 examples of functional groups that we studied in class?
* **Alcohol group**
* -ol
* **Carboxylic Acid**
* -oic Acid
* **Amine**
* -amin
* **Thiol** – rotten eggs
* -thiol
27
Levels of organization of living organisms and the definitions of each
**Biosphere!** – the world wide ecosystem, living / non-living components that we interact with like the atmosphere, soil, ocean
**Ecosystem** – all the living components that exist in a particular place, communities of organisms as well as the non living things (soil/water etc)
**Community** – group of living organisms that are all existing in the same place (_includes different kinds/species) in one place_
**Population** – group of all the same kind of _one organism_ (species)
**Organism** – independent living unit
**Organ System** – group of organs that work together to perform a particular function
**Organ** – groups of tissues that operate to perform a common function
**Tissue** – collection of cells that operate together
**Cell** – smallest unit of life
* (Organelles) - microscopic organs in cells but NOT on its own living
* [Molecules] – specific arrangements of atoms
* [Atoms] – fundamental units of matter
28
5) The count of protons in an atom is better known as the what?
ATOMIC NUMBER
29
What is a scientific law?
What is a scientific theory?
Which is often associated with one or more mathematical formula(s)?
_Scientific Law:_ A uniform or constant fact of nature that describes what happens in nature that is often associated with **one or more mathematical formulae**
_Scientific Theory:_ A widely accepted, plausible, general statement about fundamental concepts in science that explain why things happen
30
Which of the four metabolic pathways that produce ATP requires oxygen?
Aerobic respiration
31
What are the two enzyme examples we studied in class? What do they do?
**Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)**
**Catalase**
Together they neutralize the superoxides in our cells to prevent them from reacting negatively (First SOD creates H2O2 + O2 then Catalase Breaks further into CO2 and H2O)
32
What is the addition of a phosphate to molecule known as?
Phophorylation
33
What is an isotope? What determines an isotope?
Same **element** with different **atomic mass** (same number of protons, different number of neutrons)
**Neutron count** determs the Isotope
34
What are the 5 types of reactions we studied in class?
1) Oxidation Reduction
2) Dehydration Synthesis
3) Hydrolysis
4) Phosphorylation
5) Acid-Base
35
What are the forms of passive transport?
* Simple Diffusion
* Water Channels
* Facilitated Diffusion
* Osmosis
36
A large molecule composed of many repeating subunits is a what? What are three categories of biological molecules that are examples?
POLYMERS (Poly – Many, MER – Parts)
* Carbohydrate
* Protein
* Nucleic Acid
37
What are the two categories of proteins associated with membranes?
**Integral** – embedded in lipid bilayer, doesn’t leave, also have hydrophobic/philic regions
**Peripheral** — attached to the surface of the membrane, can breakaway/leave
38
What are the 6 most common atoms in organic molecules?
Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphate Sulfur
39
What are endo- and exocytosis? What are the three types of endocytosis?
**Endocytosis:** Vesicle Into a cell
* **Pinocytosis –** invagination/formation of a pocket that is then pinched off into a vesicle inside the cell (pino – “to drink”)
* **Phagocytosis –** a cell extends its membrane to engulf a solid particle creating a structure called a phagosome
* **Receptor-mediated endocytosis** – similar to pinocytosis but requires activation of receptors on the cell membrane by ligands – signal molecule (ligate/ligature – bind to)
**Exocytosis:** Vesicle out of a cell
40
Know that mitochondria are theorized to have once been separate prokaryotic organisms that were incorporated into eukaryotic cells in a process called endosymbiosis
ENDOSYMBIOSIS. BINARY FISSION. OWN DNA. (mtDNA and their own Ribosomes)
41
What is the name of a reaction involving two molecules being joined with the removal of a water molecule? What is the opposite reaction called?
Removal - Dehydration Synthesis
Opposite - Breaking down - Hydrolysis
42
What molecule is the universal currency of energy in living organisms?
ATP
43
Atoms tend to react to gain as stable number of how many electrons in their outermost shell? What is this rule known as? What is the exception to this rule?
ATOMS TRY TO GET 8 ELECTRONS - **OCTET RULE**
EXCEPTION: HYDROGEN - HELIUM IS CLOSEST AT 2 ELECTRONS IN VALENCE SHELL
NOT STUDIED: BORON and ALUMINUM - 6 VALENCE but not a thing to know
44
What are ribosomes? Where are they located? What is their function? What are they composed of?
NO MEMBRANE organelles
**ALL CELLS HAVE RIBOSOMES**
* Located on the ER
* On the Nucleus
* In Mitochondria
* Free floating in the Cytosol
Manufacture proteins from mRNA and Amino acids (Translation)
Composed of: **2 Ribosomal subunits rRNA and Protein**
45
The portion of an organic molecule that determines its chemistry is known as a what?
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
46
How many bonds does a carbon atom form?
**Tetravalent - _Forms 4 Covalent Bonds_**
47
What are the four ways that organisms produce energy?
1. Glycolysis
2. Fermentation
3. Anaerobic Respiration (only one we can’t do?)
4. Aerobic Respiration
48
What are proteins? What are the main categories of proteins?
Polymers of amino acids
i. Structural Proteins (Collagen)
ii. Regulator Proteins
iii. Carrier Proteins
49
What is a nonscience? How is it different from a science? What are some examples?
* Disciplines that cannot be tested by experimentation
* Do not show a significantly high degree of cause-and-effect
* Have poor predictive value
* Cannot make use of the scientific method
**SCIENCE REQUIRES QUESTIONS THAT HAVE A FACTUAL BASIS**
50
What is the Golgi apparatus? What is its function?
Flattened, stacked, membranous organelle
* Receives
* Stores
* Modifies
* Packages proteins from the ER
51
Groups of orbitals are known as? What is the outermost level called?
GROUPS OF ORBITALS ARE SHELLS
OUTERMOST SHELL IS A VALENCE SHELL
52
What is biology?
A branch of knowledge that deals with **living organisms** and vital processes
53
What is a hypothesis?
Proposed explanation for a phenomenon or group of phenomena
54
What determines the chemical properties of an atom (i.e. how and if an atom will react when it encounters another atom)?
**The electrons**
55
In what process of aerobic respiration is the majority of ATP produced?
**Oxidative Phosphorylation** (Or the combined processes of the Electron Transport Chain and ADP Phosphoylation)
56
What is irreversible inhibition?
Enzyme inhibitors may bond irreversibly to the active sites of enzymes, completely and permanently disabling the enzyme.
57
What are the functions of proteins in membranes?
**Enzymes -** speed up reaction
**Receptor -** binds chemical messengers
**Channel -** passage way through the lipid bi-layer
**Carrier -** facilitated passage way
58
How do biological systems carry out energetically unfavorable reactions?
UNFAVORABLE REACTIONS COUPLE WITH A FAVORABLE REACTION
59
What is cytosol? What are the components of cytosol?
Cytosol is the intracellular fluid
Primarily water, with other dissolved ions with some proteins and amino acids
60
Know general enzyme terms: substrate, product, enzyme-substrate complex, enzyme-product complex.
**Substrate –** reactant that will be activated on by an enzyme
**Products -** Result of the reaction
**_Enzyme substrate complex –_** when the enzyme and the substrate bind together, only a fraction of a second before the reaction happens
**_Enzyme product complex –_** after the reaction but right before products are released
61
What is metabolism? What are the two types of reactions in metabolism?
Metabolism: The sum of all biochemical reactions in the body. (enormous set of biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life.)
* Catabolism – break down / lysis, release energy
* Anabolism – synthetic, require energy
62
What is the ultimate fate of carbon from glucose in aerobic respiration? What is the ultimate fate of the electrons from glucose in aerobic respiration?
Carbon become CO2 Electrons are combined with molecular oxygen (O2) and some protons (H+) to produce water (H2O)
63
What are the four classes of biological macromolecules? What are their subunits (monomers)?
* **Carbohydrate**
* Monosachharide
* **Protein**
* Amino Acid
* **Lipid**
* Fatty Acids (Not actually considered a monomer)
* **Nucleic Acids**
* Nucleotides
64
What are aquaporins?
Aquaporin, facilitates _water movement_ through the bi-layer
65
Know the general mechanism of action of receptor proteins.
Receptors are designed to sense specific molecular messengers (**_ligands_**)
66
What is glycolysis?
What is the starting substrate (how many carbons)?
The final products (how many carbons)?
How many ATP molecules are generated in glycolysis?
Where does glycolysis occur?
Biochemical cascade breaking down glucose
Starting substrate: Glucose - 6 carbons
Final Products: 2 pyruvate (3 carbons each), 2 ATP, 2 NADH
2 ATP Generated (4 Generated Gross, but Nets 2)
Occurs in the Cytosol
67
What are iso-, hypo-, and hypertonic solutions? What effect will they have on a cell?
**Isotonic Solution** — Same concentration on inside and outside of the cell, water going in/out is equal in concentration (normal saline is this — never inject pure water or hypertonic)
**Hypotonic** — less solute outside the cell, so water wants to move INSIDE the cell because it’s a higher concentration, **cell swells**
**Hypertonic —** more solute outside the cell, so the cell **shrinks** and undergoes crenation
68
What type of chemical bond is created by the exchange of electrons? The sharing of electrons?
**IONIC BOND –** Exchange of Electrons between two atoms
**COVALENT BOND** – Sharing of Electrons between two atoms
69
What are the two types of cells? What are examples of each? Which type is usually larger?
* **Prokaryotic** - Bacteria, Archaea
* **Eukaryotic** - Larger - Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protozoa, Algae
70
What effect does low/high temperature have on enzyme function? What does high temperature do to a protein (such as an enzyme)?
Enzymes have a range of temperatures where they are most effective
**Low temperatures** may mean molecules do not have sufficient **_kinetic energy_** to provide the activation energy of a reaction, even in the presence of an enzyme.
**High temperatures** may **_denature_** an enzyme, causing it to lose its shape and ability to function.
71
What is a redox reaction? What is the definition of oxidation? Reduction?
An Oxidation Reduction
* Oxidation - Loses an Electron
* Reduction - Gains an Electron
72
What are two types of reversible inhibition?
**Competitive -** Occupies the binding site
**Non-Competitive -** Doesn't occupy the binding site, but changes shape/blocks it
73
What is an ion? What is a positively charged ion called? A negatively charged ion?
**ION** – Atom with an _imbalance of neutrons and electrons_, can be positive or negative
**CATION** – Atom with a positive charge (Lost an electron, more neutrons than electrons) PAAAWSITIVE -
**ANION** – Atom with a negative charge (gained an electron, more electrons than neutrons)
74
What are the three environmental factors that can affect enzyme function?
* Temperature
* pH
* Concentration of enzymes, substrates, and cofactors
75
Know that enzyme concentration may be regulated by genetic expression.
Gene-regulator proteins can increase or decrease the number of enzymes produced
76
What are three types of inhibition?
Reversible inhibition
Irreversible inhibition
Negative Feedback
77
What types of molecules are capable of crossing a membrane via simple diffusion?\*\*\*
Only **small non-polar molecules** are able to pass through the lipid bi-layer of the membrane: (water is exception because of channels and Osmosis)
e.g. O2, Co2, N2
Fatty acids
Steroids (messengers)
Fat soluble vitamins (ADEK)
**\*NOT IONS\***
78
What are the four ways in which enzymes are regulated?
Genetic Regulation
Inhibition (Irreversible, Reversible, Negative Feedback) -
Allosteric Regulation of Enzyme Activity
Phosphorylation
79
What is the definition of an acid? A base?
Acid DONATE a proton (AD)
Base ACCEPT a proton (BA)
80
What is homeostasis?
Maintenance of a **dynamic equilibrium** in the internal environment of an organism
81
What is science?
Study of the natural world based on FACTS
Learned through EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATION
82
What is the fluid mosaic model of membranes?
Not bonded but held together by intermolecular interactions – able to move about within the structure of the membrane
_Membranes are dynamic_
83
The unreactive elements in group 8A/18 are known as?
NOBLE GASES
84
Is hydrolysis of ATP favorable or unfavorable?
FAVORABLE
85
What are coenzymes? Prosthetic groups? Which moves freely and which is covalently bonded to an enzyme?
**Coenzymes** (Train/Truck – can carry things away) Organic molecules that _donate a group_ to a substrate or accept a group from a substrate. Many vitamins form coenzymes. (i.e. carry electrons, taxicabs)
**Prosthetic Groups** (Crane – stays in the seaport) Cofactors that are covalently bonded to the enzyme.
86
What is the definition of matter?
Anything that has mass
87
Two molecules with the same chemical formula but differing structures are known as what?
ISOMER. (SAME PARTS)
88
What 3 types of lipids are present in membranes? Which is the most abundant?
**Phospholipids:** made from glycerol, fatty acid and phosphate - Most abundant
**Glycolipids:** made from sphingosine and sugar molecules
**Cholesterol: l**ipid based on the molecule sterol, only found in animal
89
What are the three monosaccharides of importance? The three disaccarides? What are the subunits of each disaccharide?
* Monosaccharides
* **Glucose**
* Fructose
* Galactose
* Disaccharides
* Sucrose - Glucose + Fructose
* Maltose - Glucose + Glucose
* Lactose - Glucose + Galactose
90
What is the scientific method?
What are the steps of the scientific method?
Standardized method used to describe the universe:
* Observation
* Ask Questions
* Hypothesis
* Test Hypothesis / Experiment
* Draw Conclusions
* Revise Hypothesis OR -
* Show fits with current theories/laws OR
* Develop new law or scientific theory
91
What is the name of the enzyme that synthesizes ATP? What does it use as a power source?
**ATP Synthase**
Electrons power the Artificial Proton Gradient / **Proton Motive Force** / Facilitated Diffusion
92
What are the two categories of organelles?
What are the membranous organelles?
The nonmembranous organelles?
**Membranous Organelles**
* Nucleus
* Endoplasmic Reticulum
* Golgi Apparatus/Complex
* Mitochondria
* Lysosomes / Peroxisomes
* Plastids (Plants/Algae)
* Vesicles / Vacuoles
**Non-Membranous Organelles**
* Ribosomes
* Cytoskeleton
* Centrioles
* Cilia and Flagella
93
What is an apoenzyme? A holoenzyme? Which is functional?
**Apoenzyme**, not functional enzyme without its cofactor
With its cofactor, the functional form is called a **holoenzyme**.
94
What are organelles? Which type of cell has complex, membrane-enclosed organelles?
Organelles are parts of the cell that have a specific function
Eukaryotic cells have complex, membrane-enclosed organelles
95
Know basic concepts about pH effect on enzymes.
pH can _affect the shape of an enzyme_ or its substrate.
Each enzyme operates optimally at a specific pH.
Extremes of pH can also _denature enzymes_
96
Know the functions of vesicles (secretory and transport), lysosomes, and peroxisomes
**Vacuoles** - designed for storage, membrane sac (Transport or Secretion)
**Lysosomes -** (LYSIS) break down, contain enzymes that are able to digest most products in the cytoplasm including proteins, nucleic acids, carbs, lipids, cellular debris
**Peroxisomes -** process _fatty acids_, reactive oxygen species, contain enzyme for the pentose phosphate pathway (building block of DNA and RNA synthesizing)
97
What is the name of the probability cloud inhabited by electrons?
ORBITALS
98
What is aerobic respiration? Where does it occur? How many ATPs are generated (including those from glycolysis)?
Using oxygen to extract ATP from fuel molecules
Aerobic respiration occurs in the **mitochondria** of eukaryotic organisms (and the cytosol of prokaryotic organisms)
**In total 36 ATP** are generated (including 2 from Glycolysis)
99
Where is cholesterol found in the membrane? What is its function in the membrane?
Cholesterol hangs between the lipid / fatty tail portion of the membrane
In cellular membranes, cholesterol modulates the **fluidity of the membrane,** Stiffer or looser
100
What is chemistry?
Organic chemistry?
Biochemistry?
**Chemistry:** The study of matter – anything that has MASS
**Organic Chemistry:** Study of organic matter, compounds based on carbon
**Biochemistry:** study of compounds, chemical reaction and interactions that take place within living organisms
101
What is anaerobic respiration? How does it differ from aerobic respiration?
Uses a substance other than molecular oxygen as a final electron acceptor
Common exogenous terminal electron acceptors include: sulfur, sulfate, nitrate, fumarate.
These compounds do not release as much energy as oxygen when they are reduced, thus aerobic respiration is more energetically efficient
102
What determines whether a covalent molecule will be polar or nonpolar?
Polar – STRONGER NUCLEAR FORCE (One atom can pull a little closer, i.e. H2O, Oxygen is stronger than Hydrogen, creating Poles) Non-Polar – Center between the two atoms (i.e. O2 – same force, even sharing)
103
What is chromatin? Euchromatin? Heterochromatin?
**Chromatin** - spools of DNA
**Euchromatin** - lightly wound spools, the accessible ones that are used often
**Heterochromatin** - More tightly packed, protection, not access
104
What are the 4 categories of lipids?
**i. Fatty Acids –** long open hydrocarbon chains
**ii. Glycerides –** lipids with a backbone of glycerol molecule, storage form of lipids in the human body
**iii. Non-Glycerides** – lipids not based on glycerol molecule (like sterols/cholesterol), fat soluble vitamins ADEKs, waxes
**iv. Complex Lipids** – Includes micelles, chylomicrons, lipoproteins, and liposomes
105
What is cell theory?
All living organisms are composed from cells that come from pre-existing cells
106
What are the two types of energy? What are some different forms of energy?
**Kinetic Energy** – motion of atoms / molecules
**Potential Energy** – stored energy of things at rest
Chemical, Thermal, Nuclear, Radiant
107
What are the two types of chemical bonds?
**IONIC BOND** – Exchange of Electrons between two atoms
**COVALENT BOND** – Sharing of Electrons between two atoms
108
What is the preferred fuel for our bodies?
Carbohydrates - then lipids
Protein is better suited for being broken into amino acids, while we CAN use it for fuel, it produces amonia as a by-product which is not good for the body.
109
What is induction?
The process whereby a molecule can **increase the expression of a gene to produce more enzyme**
110
What are zymogens/proenzymes?
Zymogen or Proenzyme — _pre-active enzyme_ that requires modification in order to be active generally has **suffix - ogen**
111
What are the nucleic acids? What are the components of a nucleotide? What is the function of nucleic acids?
Polymers of nucleotides - **DNA/RNA -**
Both are made up of A,C,T,G, U which are comprised of:
_1. 5-carbon sugar_
_2. Nitrogenous base_
_3. Phosphate_
**Store genetic information**
112
Know the (7) characteristics of life – what makes something alive?
1. ORGANIZATION
2. HOMEOSTASIS
3. METABOLISM
4. RESPONSE TO STIMULI
5. ADAPTATION
6. GROWTH
7. REPRODUCTION
113
What are the two organelles of movement we studied?
Cilia is the plural of Cilium (hair)
Flagella plural of Flagellum (whip)
114
What is ATP used for?
It is the universal currency of energy, used for all kinds of reactions:
* Muscle contraction and cellular movements
* Active transport of molecules and ions
* Synthesis of macromolecules
115
What is a cofactor? What are the two types of cofactors?
Cofactor – enzyme helpers – ion or molecule required by an enzyme in order to function
* Coenzymes
* Prosthetic groups.
116
What is osmosis? Which molecule moves by osmosis in biological systems?
Solvent molecules (water) move through a **semipermeable membrane** into an area of high concentration of solute
117
What is activation energy? What effect does a catalyst have on activation energy?
Activation energy — the energy needed to start a chemical reaction
Cataylst **lowers** the Activation Energy
118
What is a mitochondrion? What is its function? Are they found in all cells? Do prokaryotes have mitochondria?
* Membranous Organelles
* "Powerhouse of the cell" to produce the vast majority of ATP / Energy (Aerobic respiration)
* Not found in all cells - Prokaryotes do not have Mitochondria
119
What is the nucleolus?
Dense, rough **factory of Ribosomes** in the nucleus
120
What are some branches of biology?
Anatomy **Biochemistry** Bioengineering Biomechanics Biophysics Biotechnology Botany **Cellular biology** Conservation biology Developmental biology/embryology **Ecology** Environmental biology • Evolutionary biology **Genetics** Marinebiology **Microbiology** Molecular biology • Neurobiology Pharmacology Physiology/ Pathophysiology **Toxicology** Zoology
121
What is the fundamental unit of life?
Cell
122
What is the fundamental structural and functional unit of living things?
Cell
123
What is an enzyme? What are most enzymes made of?
Enzyme is a biological catalysts
Most enzymes are proteins
124
What is allosteric regulation? An effector? A negative feedback loop?
When enzymess are regulated by an **EFFECTOR**
They attach at the allosteric site, not the active site. Which changes the shape to make it more or less likely to bind substrate. (HEME / O2 Example)
**Effectors - i**nhibitor or activator molecules Negative feedback loop - specifically in enzymes when the end product can inhibit/turn off the enzyme
125
What is a chloroplast? What is its function?
Contain the green pigment Chlorophyll, responsible for Photosynthesis in plant cells
126
What three particles make up an atom?
What charge does each have?
Which ones are found in the nucleus of an atom?
How is the atomic mass of an atom calculated?
Nucleus:
* Protons – Positive Charge (+)
* Neutrons — Neutral / No Charge
In Orbitals
* Electrons — Negative Charge (-)
**Atomic Mass** is calculate by the number of PROTONS + NEUTRONS
127
What are the functions of the nucleus?
Do all cells have a nucleus?
Are there cells with more than one?
Functions
* Store the DNA and structures for cell division
* Conducts the process of DNA _replication_ and RNA _transcription_
* Makes Ribosome in the Nucleolus
Some cells have no nucleus (Red blood cells - _Anucleate_)
Some have more (Myocytes - _Multinucleated_)
128
What are the 4 steps of aerobic respiration? Where does each occur?
4 Steps in Aerobic Respiration – ALL which occur in mitochondria
* 1. Pyruvate decarboxylation (matrix, break off a carbon)
* 2. The Krebs cycle (matrix, fully oxidize fuel)
* 3. The Electron Transport Chain (crista membrane)
* 4. ADP phosphorylation (crista membrane)
(Oxidative Phosphorylation - last 2 steps, where most of the ATP is produced)
129
What is facilitated diffusion?
What are the two types of facilitated diffusion?
Facilitated Diffusion: Like simple occurs without input of energy, uses concentration gradients, but needs membrane proteins Channel-mediated (protein channels) Carrier-mediated (carrier proteins)
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What process must amino acids undergo before they can be used to generate ATP?
Amino acids must first be **DEAMINATED** before they can enter the Krebs Cycle.
The side chains (R groups) must frequently be altered as well.
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What is a pseudoscience?
Deceptive practice that uses the appearance or language of science to convince, confuse, or mislead people into thinking that something has scientific validity
