Final Study Guide Flashcards
1
Q
What are the two nucleic acids?
A
DNA
RNA
2
Q
What are the components of a nucleic acid?
A
Polymers of nucleotides
3
Q
What are genes?
A
Regions of DNA that encode a functional RNA or protein
4
Q
What is the function of DNA?
A
Storing genetic code
5
Q
What are the components of a nucleotide?
A
Nitrgenous base, Pentose Sugar, Phosphate,
6
Q
What are the two types of nucleotides?
A
Purines (Larger)
Pyrimidines (Smaller)
7
Q
What are the 5 nucleotides - which are purines and which are pyrimidines?
A
Purines - 2 ring:
- Adenine
- Guanine
Pyrimidines - 1 ring:
- Thymine (DNA)
- Uracil (RNA)
- Cytosine
8
Q
What is a pentose sugar?
What are the two pentose sugars in nucleotides?
Which one is in RNA? DNA?
A
5 Carbon Sugar
RNA - Ribose
DNA - Dioxyribose
9
Q
Which nucleotide is only used in DNA? RNA?
A
DNA - Thyamine
RNA - Uracil
10
Q
How do the nucleotides pair up?
A
Adenine - Thymine / Uracile Guanine - Cytosine
(Apples in the Tree or Under, Cars in the Garage)
11
Q
What holds the two strands of DNA together?
A
“Zippered” with HYDROGEN BONDS
12
Q
What are histones? What is chromatin, euchromatin, heterochromatin? What are chromosomes? When are chromosomes present in a cell?
A
- Histones: Protein that the DNA is wrapped around
- Chromatin: Highly compacted nucleoprotein structure
- Euchromatin: Active chromatin that gets transcribed regularly
- Heterochromatin: Conserved chromatin
- Chromosomes: HIGHLY compacted X shaped chromatin structures - visible only during cell division
13
Q
DNA/RNA - How many strands does each have?
A
RNA is SINGLE stranged (doubles back on itself to pair)
DNA is a double stranded in a helix
14
Q
DNA/RNA - Which pentose sugar is found in each?
A
RNA - Ribose
DNA - Deoxyribose
15
Q
DNA/RNA - Which nucleic acid has multiple forms?
A
RNA
16
Q
DNA/RNA - Which nucleotide is unique to each?
A
RNA - Uracil, DNA - Thymine
17
Q
DNA/RNA - Which may have enzymatic activity?
A
RNA - these are known as ribozymes
18
Q
What are the three types of RNA we studied? What is the function of each?
A
- mRNA - messenger RNA, blueprint for proteins
- rRNA - Forms structural component of Ribosomes (w/ proteins)
- tRNA - Worker molecules that bring amino acids to ribosome for protein synthesis
19
Q
What is the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology? What is the order of the flow of biological information?
A
The transfer of sequential information —
DNA -> RNA -> Protein
20
Q
What is the enzyme that synthesizes daughter DNA strands in the process of DNA replication?
A
DNA Polymerase
21
Q
What is transcription? What enzyme performs transcription?
A
Reading the DNA nucleotides and assembling a new piece of RNA based on the instruction in the DNA (Happens in the NUCLEUS), and by RNA Polymerase
22
Q
What is translation? What structure performs translation?
A
Turning the RNA into a protein, leaves the nucleus and goes to the Ribosomes which assembles the protein
23
Q
What is tRNA? What is its function?
A
tRNA is transfer RNA, carries amino acid and matches its anticodon to the mRNA codon to assemble the protein
24
Q
Know the structure of chromosomes: chromatids, centromere, telomere, etc.
A
- Chromosome: Two strands of chromatin called chromatids, highly compacted
- Centromere: connects them
- Telomere: End cap
25
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have? What is an autosome? What is a sex chromosome? What are the sex chromosomes in humans?
* Humans have 23 pairs of Chromosomes
* Autosome is 1-22
* Final 23rd pair is the sex chromosome \*XY or XX\*
26
What is a karyotype?
A picture of chromosomes during cellular division that measures the shape and size of the chromosomes
27
What is a mutation? What are the different types of mutations?
Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism.
## Footnote
* Point Mutation
* Insertions
* Deletions
* Chromosomal abnormalities
28
What are the three types of point mutations?
* **Missense mutation** - causes wrong aminal acid to be inserted
* **Silent mutation** - point mutation that doesn't affect the amino acid
* **Nonsense mutation** - causes a stop codon to be inserted prematurely causing the premature cessation of protein translation
29
What is an insertion mutation? A deletion mutation? What is a frameshift mutation?
* **Insertion**: One or more nucleotides is inserted
* **Deletion**: removal of one or more nucleotides
* **Frameshift**: Both insertions and deletions can cause frameshift - which alters the DNA product
30
Know the processes of binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis. What type of cells perform each? Are the daughter cells unique or identical to the parent cell?
**Binary Fission -** Used by Prokaryotic cells, asexual reproduction, single loop of DNA replicates, membrane forms, cell divides into 2 genetically identical organisms
**Mitosis** - Process of eukaryotic cell division, genetically identical daugher cells
**Meiosis** - Eukaryotic cells to reproduce daughter cells with half of the gentic information, sexual reproduction, genetically unique individual
31
What is asexual reproduction? Sexual reproduction?
* **Asexual** - only one parent cell necessary (utilized by single celled organisms)
* **Sexual** - combining of two parents to create a gentically unique individual
32
What is the cell cycle? What are the phases of the cell cycle? Which phase is longest?
All the stages of growth and division for a eukaryotic cell
Interphase, Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Interphase is the longest
33
What are the stages of interphase? In which phase is DNA replicated?
1. G1 - First gap phase - cytoplasmic increase (G0 if it never divides again)
2. S Phase, Synthesis/DNA replication
3. G2 - Second gap phase - Cytoplasmic growth
34
What are sister chromatids?
2 identical copies of a chromosome (after replication) attached at a centromere
35
What are the phases of mitosis?
What are the hallmark events associated with each phase?
* **Prophase** - Chromosomes condense, form spindle, nucleolus disappears, nuclear membrane disassembles
* **Metaphase** - Chromosomes align at the Middle
* **Anaphase** - Sister Chromatids break at centromere and move toward opposite (cytokinesis begins)
* **Telophase** - spindle fibers disassemble, nuclear membrane reforms, chromosomes uncoil, nucleolus reforms (cytokinesis complete - cleaved!)
36
What is cytokinesis?
Cell splitting at the end of Mitosis into two daughter cells
37
What are determination and differentiation?
**Determination** - proccess of which genes will express when the cell is mature
**Differentiation** - when the cell becomes a specific type of cell
38
What are the phases of meiosis?
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
39
What is meant by the terms “haploid” and “diploid”?
Which cells are haploid in humans?
Haploid has one copy of genetic information
Diploid has 2 copies
Only sex cells created in the process of meiosis are haploid
40
What are gonads? What are gametes?
Gonads are the sex organs where meisosis occurs - Testes in males, Ovaries in females
Gamete is a reproductive cell - eggs, sperm
Fertilization joins two haploid cells to create a diploid cell that is genetically unique
41
What are synapsis and crossing over? Why are they important?
When homologous pairs pair up and exhange limbs of genetic information to create mixed up DNA - this is what allows for genetic variation!
42
What are homologous pairs?
2 Chromosomes with the same genes, one from mother and one from the father
43
Know the definitions of the following terms: genetics, gene, offspring, hybrid, character(istic), heritable, trait, allele, genome.
* **Genetics**: Branch of science that studies how the characteristics of living organisms are inherited
* **Gene**: Piece of DNA that codes for a protein
* **Offspring**: descendants of a set of parents
* **Hybrid**: Offspring of genetically different parents
* **Character**(istic): a feature of an organism (i.e. eye color)
* **Heritable**: character trait passed from parent to offspring
* **Trait**: particular form of a character (i.e. blue eye) Allele: specific version of a gene
* **Genome**: set of al the genes necessary for an organisms characteristics
44
What is an organisms genotype? Its phenotype?
* **Genotype**: The combination of alleles that are present in the organisms cells
* **Phenotype**: The resulting outwardly apearance
45
Who is considered the father of genetics?
Gregor Johann Mendel
1822 - 1884
46
Understand the concept of dominance/recessiveness.
* Dominant allele masks another allele
* Recessive allele is masked by dominant
47
What is meant by the term homozygous? Heterozygous? Which produces sex cells with only one type of an allele?
**Homozygous** - 2 identical alleles (dominant or recessive)
**Heterozygous** - two different alleles
If an organism has two identical alleles for a characteristic it can produce sex cells with only one type of allele.
48
What is a Punnett square?
Shows the possible offspring a specific genetic cross
49
Understand the concept of a single-factor cross, a double factor cross, a monohybrid cross and a dihybrid cross.
**Single-factor** - studies just one characteristic, Mono-hybrid is when both organisms are heterozygous for the ONE observed gene
**Double factor** - looks at multiple characteristics, dihybrid - cross between two that are heterozyous for BOTH obseved genes
50
What genotypic and phenotypic ratios will be observed in each type of cross?
**Monohybrid:**
* SF MC Genotype Ratio 1:2:1
* SF MC Phenotype Ratio 3:1
**Dihybrid**
* DF DC Phenotypes Ratio 9:3:3:1
* The genotypic ratios are: RRYY 1: RRYy 2: RRyy 1: RrYY 2: RrYy 4: Rryy 2: rrYY 1: rrYy 2: rryy 1.
51
What are the three Mendelian Laws of Genetics? Which one is always followed? What are the exceptions to the other two?
**_Law of Segregation -_** In gamete formation, the alleles separate so that _each gamete only receives one_ member of the pair of alleles. Always applies as long as gametes are properly formed
**_Law of Independent Assortment_** - Alleles on _different genes assort independently_, exception is sex chromosomes, more accurate that chromosomes assort independently
**_Law of Dominance_** - some alleles interact in dominant/recessive manner, there are several exceptions because not all alleles have a pure dominant/recessive relationship
52
codominance
Checkered Chicken, ABO blood
No total dominant, so BOTH alleles are expressed phenotypically
53
incomplete dominance
Pink Snapdragons
Heterozygote is an intermediate between two homozygote - BLENDED
54
multiple alleles
ABO Blood type, 3 alleles, 6 ways
There are 2 or more possible alleles for a single trait
55
polygenic inheritance
Skin color Interactions of several genes
56
pleiotropy
Marfan Syndrome
Single gene with multiple phenotype effects
57
autosomal and sex linkage
**Autosomal** - if they sit closesly enough together they are likely to be inherited together
**Sex linkage** - if they sit on the X or Y Chromosome
58
What is the definition of evolution? Microevolution? Macroevolution?
**Evolution**: Change in the frequency of genetically-determined characteristics within a population over time
**Microevolution**: minor differences in allele frequency b/t populations of the same species resulting in genetic differences between sub species
**Macroevolution**: MAJOR differences that have occured over long periods of time that have resulted in so much genetic change that new kinds of species are produced
59
What was Jean-Baptiste de LaMarck’s hypothesis?
Acquired characteristics are traits gained during an organism’s life and not determined genetically
60
What is natural selection? Artificial selection?
The differential **SURVIVAL AND REPRODUCTION** of individuals due to differences in phenotype
Artificial more commonly known as selective breeding
61
Who developed the theory of natural selection as a mechanism of evolution? What was his book titled?
Charles Darwin - *On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life*
62
Know the assumptions that must be made for the theory of natural selection. Also know how Mendel’s contributions modified these assumptions.
1. All organisms **produce MORE offspring** than can survive (Mendel - Overproduce results in surplus organisms)
2. **No two organisms are exactly alike** (Mutation occurs/new genetically determeined traits enter gene pool.)
3. Among organisms, there is a **constant struggle for survival** (Resources are in short supply, some individuals do without - Competition, Environmental factors)
4. Individuals that possess **favorable characteristics for their environment** have a higher rate of survival and produce more offspring (Selecting agents favor ind. most likely to survive and reproduce - selected against if it has fewer offspring than other individuals with a more favorable combination of alleles)
5. **Favorable characteristics become more common** in the species, unfavorable characteristics are lost (Alleles that produce better outcomes will be better adapted to the enviornment)
63
What are selecting/evolutionary agents?
The environmental factors that affect survival
(i.e. disease, predators, helpful partnerships with other species)
64
What is meant by the term fitness?
The success of an organism in passing on its genes to the next genration compared with other members of its population
65
What are the factors that affect how a species changes over time?
1. Environmental Factors - how well individuals characteristics match the demands of its environment
2. Sexual Reproduction
3. The amount of genetic diversity - large gene pool allows some individuals to adapt to a changing environment
66
Know the common misconceptions about evolution e.g. will acquired characteristics be inherited by an organism’s offspring?
* Evolution only happened in the past
* Evolution has a predetermined goal
* Changes in the environment cause the mutations that are needed to survive new environmental conditions
* Individual organisms evolve
* Many of the current species can be showen to be derived from other present-day species
* Alleles that are valuable to an organisms survival become dominant
67
Know the common misconceptions about natural selection
* Survival of the fittest - reproduction is more important factor, number of descendents
* Struggle for life does not just mean open conflict
* Phenotypic characteristics that are acquired through life but not genetically determined and not passed to offspring
* Relationship between the mechanism of natural selection (death, reproductive success, mate choic) and the outcomes of the natural seleciton process
68
What are the mechanisms we studied that affect genetic diversity?
**Mutation -** most are not beneficial to organism, alter specific genes
**Migration -** individuals entering or leaving a population
**Sexual Reproduction** - creates new genetic combinations
**Genetic Recombination** - mixing of genes that occurs when gamets fuse in sex rep
69
What is penetrance? Expressivity?
**Penetrance** - how often an alelle expresses itselve
**Expressivity** - to what extend a genotype is expressed in the phenotype
70
Understand why some genes may avoid natural selection.
Some genes can only be expressed during specific period during the life (later in life after kids wouldn't alter natural selection)
Organism may die before the characteristic is expressed
Some need environmental triggers
Recessive alleles must be present in the homozygous condition before expressed
71
What are the processes that drive selection?
* **Differential Survival** - large numbers will have different traits that make their survival more or less difficult
* **Differential Reproductive Rates** - similar survival rates could have different reproductive rates, more genes in subsequent population
* **Differential Mate Choice - Sexual Selection** - some chosen more frequently as mate - body size, aggressiveness, conspicuous characteristics
72
What is sexual selection?
When some individuals within animal population are chosen as mates more frequently than others
73
What are the three patters of selection we studied? Know the effects of each on a population.
**Stabilizing Selection -** extremes of characteristic selected against
**Directional Selection -** One extreme is selected for
**Disruptive Selection** - Both extremes are selected for
74
What is Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? Why is it important?
When gene frequencies are constant over several generations, evolution is not taking place at that time.
It rarely exists, but gives a mathmatical formula to prove that evolution is still happening. Gives a baseline
75
Know the definitions of: biological systematics, taxonomy, phylogeny, cladistics.
**BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMATICS** - STUDY of the DIVERSIFICATION of living things, both past and present, and the RELATIONSHIP of living things through TIME
**TAXONOMY** - SCIENCE of DEFINING AND NAMING groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics
**PHYLOGENETICS** - STUDY evolutionary history, development, and relationships among groups of organisms.
**CLADISTICS** - approach to BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION in which organisms are categorized based on SHARED DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS that can be traced to a group’s most recent COMMON ANCESTOR
76
What is binomial nomenclature? Who developed it? What does each of the 2 names represent?
* The system of naming an organism using two Latin names for the genus and species
* CAROLUS LINNEUS
* *Genus species*
77
Know the hierarchy of classification
* Domain
* Kingdom
* Phylum
* Class
* Order
* Family
* Genus
* Species
78
How many domains exist? What are they? Which ones are prokaryotic? Eukaryotic?
* 3 domains
* Bacteria, Archaea, EUkarya
* Bacteria, Archaea - prokaryotic
79
How many kingdoms does each domain have? What are the 4 kingdoms in domain Eukarya? Which one is now being considered as a collection of phyla rather than a true kingdom?
1 kingdom each in
* Bacteria (Eubacteria)
* Archae
4 Kingdoms of Eukarya:
* Animalia
* Plantae
* Protista - possibly phyla, not true kingdom
* Fungi
80
What is the Ernst Mayr definition of a species?
Natural population of organisms (actually and potentially) capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
81
What evidence do phylogeneticists use to establish evolutionary histories?
1. Fossil record,
2. Comparitive anatomy,
3. Life cycle information,
4. Biochemical & molecular evidence
82
What are homologous vs. analogous structures?
* **Homologous Structure** - common ancestor/origin (bats, birds)
* **Analogous Structure** - similar function, but developed independently
83
Know the general characteristics of each of the three domains that we studied e.g. prokaryotic/eukaryotic, uni- or multicellular, shapes, nutritional types, reproduction, etc.
**Domain Bacteria** - Prokaryotic (no nuclear envelope, single celled) -
* Rods, Spheres, Spirals
* Single loop of DNA, reproduce by Binary Fission, exhange plasmids
* Autotrophic or heterotrophic (Some photoautotrophs) -
* Phototrophic, lithotrophic or organotrophic -
* Aerobic or anaerobic
**Domain Archaea** - Prokaryotic
* Spheres, rods, spirals, plates
* loops of DNA, reproduce with Binary Fission, exhange plasmids
* Phototrophs, lithotrophs, or organotrophs as well as autotrophic or heterotrophic
* extremophiles
**Domain Eukarya** -Eukaryotic (both multicellular, unicelluar)
* all animals and fungi heterotrophic, some Protists - autotrophic, mixotrophic, plants autotrophic
* some mitosis, some meiosis
84
Understand noncellular infectious particles: viruses, viroids, and prions.
**Viruses** - nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat (obligate intracellular parasites)
**Viroids** - infectious particle of looped RNA, only found in plants, don't infect animals
**Prions -** infectious protein particle
85
What is an ecosystem? Environment?
Ecosystem is all of the communities that interact with the physical world in a **particular place.**
Ecologists define **environment** as anything that affects an organism during its lifetime.
86
Know biotic vs. abiotic factors.
**Biotic factors** are living things that affect an organism: – Trees, disease organisms, animals, etc.
**Abiotic factors** are nonliving factors that affect an organism: – Wind, rain, sunlight, temperature, elevation, etc.
87
What is a trophic level? A food chain? Food web?
In general, energy flows from the Sun to plants, and from plants to animals, but there are recognizable steps in this flow.
Each step in the flow of energy is known as a **trophic level.**
A f**ood chain** is the series of organisms feeding on one another.
A **food web** is the interconnection among food chains.
88
What are the three categories of organisms in an ecosystem? Which one is autotrophic?
* Producers - The only autotroph
* Consumers
* Decomposers
89
Which category is the first trophic level? Second? Third? Fourth?
* Producers - First trophic level
* Primary Consumers (herbivores) - 2nd trophic level
* Secondary Consumers / Primary Carnivores (consume herbivores) 3rd trophic level
* Secondary Carnivores (consume primary carnivores) 4th trophic level
90
Know the different types of consumers:
* **herbivores** Only eat plants (deer, goose, cricket, vegetarian human)
* **carnivores** Only eat other animals (wolf, pike, dragonfly)
* **omnivores** Eat both plants and animal (rats, most humans, brown bears)
* **scavengers** Eats food left by others (Vulture, skunk, coyote, crayfish)
* **parasites** Lives in or on another organism, using it for food (Tick, tapeworm)
91
What two types of organisms comprise the bulk of the decomposer category?
Bacteria and Fungi
92
Understand that energy is lost as it moves from one trophic level to the next. Which level has the most energy? The least?
Due primarily to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, energy is lost as it passes from one trophic level to the next.
First trophic level has the most energy.
93
Understand the effects that biological interactions have on an organism.
Biological interactions are typically classified by the effect the relationship has on the two organisms in the relationship.
A relationship may have the following effects on an organism:
* Positive +
* Negative –
* Neutral 0
94
What is competition? Intra- vs. interspecific competition? What effect does this have on each organism?
* **Intras**_peci_**fic** - competition among individuals of the same species
* **Interspecific** - competition amoung individuals of different species - may exclude species from a habitat or even cause the extinction of a species
note _speci_ here
95
What is a niche? What is the competitive exclusion principle?
A **niche** is the specific functional role an organism has in its community
No two species of organisms can occupy the same niche – this is known as the _competitive exclusion principle._
96
What is predation? What effect does it have on the predator? The prey?
**Predation** is an interaction in which one organism captures, kills, and eats another organism. This results in a benefit to the predator and harm to the prey.
97
What is meant by the term symbiosis? What are the four types of symbiotic relationships? What effect will each one have one each organism in the relationship? Be able to recognize examples of each.
**Symbiosis** – Living together of two or more species in a prolonged and intimate ecological relationship
1. **Mutualism** – symbiotic relationship where both participants benefit (Lichen) (+/+) -
2. **Commensalism** – win/neutral – an interaction that benefits one participant but has a neutral effect on the other (Remora) (+/0) -
3. **Amensalism** – interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by the other (0/-) o Example would be animals trampling grass or falling tree crushing – most examples are accidents -
4. **Parasitism** – interaction where an organism benefits by inflicting harm to another (+/-)
98
What is a biogeochemical cycle?
The pattern of movement of a chemical element through organisms and reservoirs in the physical environment
99
What are the six most common elements in living organisms?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur
CHNOPS
100
Understand each of the cycles we studied in class: carbon cycle, hydrological cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle.
**Carbon Cycle** - incorporation of inorganic carbon into organic molecules by producers, organic molecules are then broken into C02 by respiration or decomposition
**Hydrological -** The cycling of water through oceans, atmosphere, and land is known as the hydrological cycle. Most of the hydrological cycle is driven by geological and atmospheric processes.
**Nitrogen Cycle -** Atmospheric elemental nitrogen (N2) can only be utilized by a very few species of organisms – certain species of bacteria and cyanobacteria. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria are essential for incorporating elemental nitrogen into organic compounds. (Need to make nucelotides, amino acids)
**Phosphorus Cycle -** Most of the processes of the phosphorus cycle are the geological processes of erosion and deposition. Plants incorporate phosphorus from the soil into organic molecules. Animals obtain phosphorus from consumption of plants or other animals.
101
What is meant by the term fixation (e.g. carbon fixation, nitrogen fixation)?
Conversion of unusable molecules into a usable ones
102
What three elements are common components of fertilizer? What is eutrophication?
Both phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are large components of fertilizers.
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (as potash)
**Eutrophication**: The process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, especially phosphates and nitrates, typically cause excessive growth of algae. (Often from Farm runoff)
103
What are the two types of reactions in photosynthesis?
**Light-dependent reactions** - uses photon and water to produce ATP and NADPH and O2 (H+ becomes the motive force for electron transport chain)
**Light-independent reactions** (The Calvin Cycle) - uses the ATP, NADPH and CO2 to produce G3P \*then made into other carbohydrates
104
What molecule is utilized by green plants, some algae, and some bacteria for photosynthesis?
Chlorophyll
105
In what organelle does photosynthesis occur in plant cells?
Chloroplasts
106
Know the internal structure of a chloroplast: inner and outer membrane, thylakoid, lumen, stroma, granum.
(STUDY IMAGE)
107
Where do the light-dependent reactions take place? The light-independent reactions? What is another name for the light-independent reactions?
**Light-dependent** take place inside the LUMEN of the THYLAKOID
**Light-independent reactions** take place in the STROMA of the CHLOROPLAST
108
What is a photosystem? A reaction center?
**Photosystem** is a group of chlorophyll molecules w/ their associated enzymes - act as antennas to capture light energy and pass it to one central chlorophyll molecule - **the reaction center** - this chlorophyll molecule donates one of its electrons to an electron transport chain
109
What molecules are produced in the light-dependent reactions?
ATP, NADPH, O2
110
What is photolysis? Why is it necessary?
Breaking water apart, it is necessary for the oxidized Chlorophyll to get back the electron that was donated to the electron transport chain - but more importantly, this is the process that creates Oxygen as a biproduct
Enzymes in Photosystem II break water molecules into molecular oxygen, electrons, and hydrogen ions:
2H2O à 4H+ + 4e- + O2
111
What are the products of photosynthesis? How does this process fit into the carbon cycle?
Products of Photosynthesis are O2 and Sugar (G3P, which can be made into Glucose)
