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Critical Reasoning > Midterm Review > Flashcards

Midterm Review Flashcards

1
Q

A neutral or positive expression used in place of one that carries negative associations

A

euphemism

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2
Q

Used to produce a negative effect on someone’s attitude about something or to tone down the positive associations it may have

A

dysphemism

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3
Q

Weasler

A

protection from criticism by weakening or watering down it somewhat and giving the claim’s author a way out in case the claim is challenged

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4
Q

What does it mean to think critically?

A

it means to think about thinking

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5
Q

T/F. A belief can either be true or false

A

true

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6
Q

What is the same as an opinion and judgment?

A

beliefs

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7
Q

What is the result of a belief that is a declarative

A

a claim

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8
Q

What are the 2 types of claims?

A
  1. subjective

2. objective

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9
Q

A type of claim whether true or false is independent of whether people think its true or false

A

objective claim

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10
Q

A type of claim that does depend whether people believe it

A

subjective claim

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11
Q

What does it mean when a deductive argument is valid? sound?

A

an argument is valid if isn’t possible for the premise(s) to be true and the conclusion is false. an argument is sound if the premise is valid AND true

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12
Q

euphemism

A

a neutral or positive expression used in place of one that carries negative associations

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13
Q

weasler

A

help protect it from criticism by watering it down somewhat, weakening it, an giving the claim’s author way out in case the claim is challenged

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14
Q

Innuendo

A

the power of suggestion to say something bad about someone or something

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15
Q

hyperbole

A

exaggeration or extravagant overstatement

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16
Q

dysphemism

A

produces a negative effect on someone’s attitude about something or tone down the positive associations ut may have

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17
Q

Downplayers

A

attempt to make someone or something look less important or significant

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18
Q

loaded questions

A

used to imply something without coming out and saying it

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19
Q

horse laugh

A

includes ridicule and vicious humor of all kinds

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20
Q

stereotype

A

a cultural belief or idea about a social group’s attributes usually simplified or exaggerated

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21
Q

repetition

A

simply making the same point over and over at every opportunity

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22
Q

rhetorical analogy

A

likens 2 or more things to make one of them appear better or worse than the other

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23
Q

rhetorical definitions

A

rhetorically charged language to express or elicit an attitude about something

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24
Q

rhetorical explanations

A

language of standard explanations to disguise their real purpose, which is to express or elicit an attitude

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25
Q

proof surrogate

A

suggests there is evidence or authority for a claim without actually citing such evidence or authority

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26
Q

a mistake in reasoning an argument that doesn’t really support or prove the contention it is supposed to support or prove

A

fallacy

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27
Q

Ad hominem

A

dismiss one’s position by dismissing that person; attacking the person, a source who the idea is associated with conclusion could about something else

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28
Q

Occurs when a speaker or write tries to persuade us to dismiss a belief by telling us that someone we don’t like has that same belief

A

guilt by association

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29
Q

Dismissing what someone is going to say by talking about the person’s consistency or character or circumstances

A

poisoning the well

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30
Q

Straw Man

A

occurs when a speaker or writer attempts to dismiss a contention by distorting or misrepresenting it; putting words in their mouth

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31
Q

False Dilemma

A

what happens when someone tries to establish a conclusion by offering it as the only alternative to something we will find acceptable

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32
Q

perfectionist fallacy

A

nothing in between; restricting options

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33
Q

line drawing fallacy

A

if not either or no difference; assumption there is a crystal-clear line can be drawn between 2 things or no difference

34
Q

what are guilt by association and poisoning the well an example?

A

ad hominen

35
Q

perfectionist and line drawing fallacy are an example of what fallacy?

A

false dilemma

36
Q

misplacing the burden of truth

A

when people try to support or prove their position by misplacing the burden of truth

37
Q

begging the question

A

restating same idea resulting in going in a loop;

38
Q

appeal to emotion

A

when a speak or writer “supports” a contention by playing on our emotions rather than by producing a real argument

39
Q

appeal to pity

A

when a speaker or writer tried to convince us of something by arousing our pity rather than giving a relevant argument

40
Q

2 wrongs make a right

A

justifying not doing something supporting a negative appraisal of someone else not a positive appraisal of one’s own

41
Q

Wishful thinking

A

occurs when we forget that wanting something to be true is irrelevant to whether it is true

42
Q

Denial

A

occurs when we forget that wanting something to be false is irrelevant to whether it is false

43
Q

2 wrongs make a right, wishful thinking, and denial are elements of what type of fallacy?

A

irrelevant fallacies

44
Q

What is the purpose of a cognitive bias?

A

to skew our apprehension of reality and interfere with out ability to think clearly, process information accurately and reason objectively

45
Q

Better-than-average illusion

A

occurs when most of a group rates themselves as better than most of the group relative to some desirable characteristics

46
Q

loss aversion

A

are more strongly motivated to avoid a loss than to accrue a gain

47
Q

bandwagon effect

A

an unconscious tendency to align one’s thinking with that of other people

48
Q

obedience to authority

A

tendency of humans to obey authority simply for the sake of doing so hardly needs experimental confirmation

49
Q

confirmation bias

A

tendency to attach more weight to evidence that supports our viewpoints

50
Q

overconfidence

A

if a person estimates the percentage of correct answers on a subject, the estimate will likely be on the high side, if questions are difficult or the subject matter is unfamiliar

51
Q

availability heuristic

A

unconsciously assigning a probability to a type of event on the basis of how often one thinks of events of that type

52
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

tendency to not appreciate that other’s behavior is as much constrained by events and circumstances as our own would be if we were in their position

53
Q

belief bias

A

tendency to evaluate reasoning by the believability of its conclusion

54
Q

negativity bias

A

tendency people have to weight negative information more heavily than positive information when evaluating things

55
Q

false consensus effect

A

inclination we may have to assume that our attitudes and those held by people around us are shared by society at large

56
Q

in-group bias

A

easier to form negative opinions of people who don’t belong to our own group; we perceive members of our group exhibit more variety and individuality

57
Q

Define vagueness

A

can’t say with certainty what is or is not included or excluded

58
Q

Define ambiguity

A

could mean more than one thing

59
Q

Semantic ambiguity

A

ambiguous phrase or word

60
Q

Grouping ambiguity

A

unclear if word being used to refer to a group collectively or to members of the group individually

61
Q

Syntatic ambiguity

A

a claim is open to 2 or more interpretations because of its structures (syntax)

62
Q

Define generality

A

lack of specificity

63
Q

What id an argument?

A

a collection of claims; consideration of accepting a claim

64
Q

What are the 2 parts of an argument?

A

a premise and conclusion

65
Q

How many premises can an argument possess?

A

one or more

66
Q

Define premise in the terms of an argument

A

reasons why; a reason for accepting the other part

67
Q

Define conclusion in the terms of an argument

A

what you believe; what the premise supposedly supports

68
Q

ethos

A

ethics

69
Q

pathos

A

emotions

70
Q

logos

A

logic; rationale

71
Q

What is an issue?

A

a question

72
Q

t/f an issue is neither objective or subjective

A

false, an issue can either be subjective or objective

73
Q

Which type of argument goes from specific to general?

A

inductive argument

74
Q

Which type of argument demonstrates?

A

deductive argument

75
Q

Which type of argument supports?

A

inductive argument

76
Q

Which type of argument goes from general to specific?

A

deductive argument

77
Q

Can a deductive argument be true/false or weak/strong?

A

no, that is the purpose of an inductive argument

78
Q

t/f a deductive argument is considered valid and sound

A

True

79
Q

Deductive argument

A

if premises are true the conclusion has to be true

80
Q

inductive argument

A

the premise supports the conclusion

Critical Reasoning (2 decks)

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