Final Review

Question 1

List all fallacies of induction

Answer 1

1. hasty generalizations
2. accident
3. weak analogy
4. appeal to authority
5. appeal to population
6. post hoc ergo propter hoc
7. cum hoc, propter hoc
8. slippery slope

Question 2

List the 2 formal fallacies

Answer 2

1. affirming the consequent

2. denying the antecedent

Question 3

List the 3 miscalculating probabilities

Answer 3

1. Gambler’s fallacy
2. overlooking prior probabilities
3. overlooking false positives

Question 4

A fallacy that is a weak argument based on debatable or unimportant similarities between 2 or more things

Answer 4

weak/false analogy

Question 5

A fallacy in which a speaker or write commits fallacy when he or she assumes that the fact that one event came after another established that it was caused by another

Answer 5

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

Question 6

Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

Answer 6

when a speak or write commits this fallacy when he or she assumes that the fact that 2 events happen at the same time established that one caused the other

Question 7

Slippery Slope

Answer 7

a fallacy in which an argument resets on an unsupported warning that is controversial and tendentious, to the effect that something will progress by degrees to an undesirable outcome

Question 8

Fallacious appeal to authority

Answer 8

when he or she tries to support a contention by offering as evidence the opinion of a nonauthoritative source

Question 9

What 5 ways to commit a hasty generalization?

Answer 9

1. anecdote
2. exceptional cases
3. biased sample
4. too small of sample
5. self-selected

Question 10

What are 2 ways to commit fallacy of popular belief?

Answer 10

1. fallacious appeal to common practice

2. bandwagon fallacy

Question 11

Accident fallacy

Answer 11

occurs when a speak or write assumes that a general statement automatically applies to a specific case

Question 12

Type of hasty generalization that occurs when someone generalizes about members who are included by their own decision

Answer 12

self-selection fallacy

Question 13

Type of hasty generalization that occurs a generalization about a large population on an atypical or skewed sample

Answer 13

fallacy of biased sample

Question 14

In an induction argument what are the premises suppose to do to conclusion?

Answer 14

the premise(s) support(s) the conclusion

Question 15

How are inductive arguments evaluates?

Answer 15

whether they are strong or weak

Question 16

What are 3 to reason inductively?

Answer 16

1. argument from analogy
2. generalize from a sample
   3, cause and effect

Question 17

What makes an argument by analogy strong?

Answer 17

the more numerous and diversified the similarities between the premise and conclusion analogues and if there are more than one premise-analogues that are numerous and diversified

Question 18

What makes an argument by analogy weak?

Answer 18

the more numerous and diversified the differences between the premise analogue and conclusion analogue and too few premise analogues that are more numerous and diversified in differences

Question 19

What fallacy is associated with argument from analogy?

Answer 19

weak/false analogy

Question 20

Explain generalizing from a sample

Answer 20

when you reason that all, most or some percentage of all members of a population have an attribute because all, most, or some percentage of a sample of the population have that attribute

Question 21

What are 3 ways that generalizing from a sample is weak?

Answer 21

1. the more atypical (biased) the sample the weaker the generalization
2. the less diversified the sample. the weaker the generalization
3. if the sample is too small to mirror the overall the population, the generalization is weak

Question 22

Which types of samples are best to generalize about a population?

Answer 22

if a sample is unbiased, large and diversified

Question 23

Which type of fallacy is best associated with generalize from a sample?

Answer 23

hasty generalizations

Question 24

What are 3 principles often used to arrive at a cause and effect relationships?

Answer 24

1. paired unusual event principle
2. covariation
3. common variable principle

Question 25

Paired Unusual Event Principle

Answer 25

if something unusual happens look for something else unusual that has happened and consider whether it might be the cause

Question 26

Covariation

Answer 26

when a variation in 1 phenomenon is accompanied by a variation in another phenomenon

Question 27

Common Variable Principle

Answer 27

a variable common to multiple occurrences of something may be related to it causally

Question 28

How do we evaluate cause and effect?

Answer 28

1. use common sense and background knowledge

2. confirm the hypothesis

Question 29

What fallacy is associated with cause and effect relationships?

Answer 29

post hoc, ergo propter hoc

Question 30

Which 3 ways can we confirm cause and effect hypothesis?

Answer 30

1. randomized controlled experiments
2. prospective observational studies
3. retrospective observational studies

Question 31

What is the significance of a retrospective observational study?

Answer 31

going backwards, people already have the effect . the purpose is to observe if they have the same cause

Question 32

What is the significance of a prospective observational study?

Answer 32

going forward, looking to see if people will have the same effect

Question 33

What is the significance of a randomized controlled group?

Answer 33

to control who is in which group

Question 34

T/F All moral judgments expresses a moral value judgment

Answer 34

false

Question 35

What is a value judgment?

Answer 35

assesses the merit, desirability, or praiseworthiness of someone or something

Question 36

What is a moral value judgment?

Answer 36

a claim assessing the moral rightness of a person or action

Question 37

What is the consistency principle?

Answer 37

the first principle of moral reasoning which states that if separate cases aren’t different in any relevant way, they should be treated the same way, and if separate cases are treated in the same way, they should not be different in any relevant way

Question 38

Gambler’s Fallacy

Answer 38

past events and future events are independent

Question 39

overlooking False positives

Answer 39

cannot determine probability that are x’s are y’s without knowing proportion of non-x’s that are y

Question 40

Legal Moralism

Answer 40

if x is immoral then x is illegal

Question 41

Harm principle

Answer 41

the only legitimate basis for forbidding X is it does harm to others

Question 42

Offense Principle

Answer 42

a law forbidding X is justifiable if X is offensive to others

Question 43

Legal Paternalism

Answer 43

A person should/can be forbidden to do X for that person’s own good