Midterm Review Flashcards
1
Q
Behaviorism
A
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
2
Q
Biopsychology
A
The specialty in psychology that studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and mental processes.
3
Q
Cognitive Psychology
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the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
4
Q
Empirical Method
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gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning
5
Q
Functionalism
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A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish and help an organism adapt to its environment
6
Q
Humanistic Perspective
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the psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices
7
Q
Introspection
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A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings; associated with structuralist perspective
8
Q
Psychoanalytic Theory
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A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior
9
Q
Psychology
A
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
10
Q
Structuralism
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an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind
11
Q
Case Study
A
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
12
Q
Confirmation Bias
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a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
13
Q
Confounding Variable
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a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
14
Q
Control Group
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In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
15
Q
Correlation
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A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
16
Q
Correlation Coefficient
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a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
17
Q
Cross-Sectional Studies
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A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ
18
Q
Debriefing
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the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
19
Q
Dependant Variable
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The outcome factor in an experiment; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
20
Q
Double-Blind Study
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An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo
21
Q
Empirical
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based on observation or experiment
22
Q
Experimental Group
A
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
23
Q
Hypothesis
A
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
24
Q
Illusory Correlation
A
perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists
25
Independant Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
26
Inductive Reasoning
A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.
27
Longitudinal Research Design
Research in which individuals are studied over an extended period of time, often over multiple developmental stages.
28
Naturalistic Observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
29
Negative Correlation
as one variable increases, the other decreases
30
Operational Definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
31
Population
overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in researching
32
Positive Correlation
A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.
33
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
34
Random Sample
method of selecting from a population in which each person has an equal probability of being selected; avoids problems of confounding variables.
35
Reliability
consistency and reproducibility of a given result
36
Replicate
repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research's reliability
37
Sample
a subset of the population to be researched
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Statistical Analysis
a research method that entails analyzing data that have already been collected to determine the strength of the relationship that may exist between two or more variables
39
Survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
40
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
41
Validity
the extent to which a test or instrument measures or predicts what it is supposed to
42
Action Potential
electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon
43
Agonist
drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter; substance that bind to synaptic receptors and increase the effect of the neurotransmitter.
44
Axon
major extension of the soma
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Dendrite
branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons
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Glial Cell
nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport
47
Neuron
cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system
48
Resting Potential
the state of readiness of a neuron membrane’s potential between signals
49
Reuptake
neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it
50
Semipermeable Membrane
cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules
51
Synaptic Cleft/Synapse
small gap between two neurons where communication occurs
52
Threshold of Excitation
level of charge in the cell membrane that causes the neuron to become active (controlled by levels of sodium and potassium ions)
53
Circadian Rhythm
biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours
54
Collective Unconscious
theoretical repository of information shared by all people across cultures, as described by Carl Jung
55
Conciousness
awareness of internal and external stimuli
56
Delta Wave
type of brain wave characteristic during stage 3 NREM sleep, which has a high amplitude and low frequency of less than 3 Hz
57
Jet Lag
collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment
58
Melatonin
hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle
59
Narcolepsy
sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times
60
Night Terror
sleep disorder in which the sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape from the immediate environment
61
Non-REM (NREM)
period of sleep outside periods of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
62
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
sleep disorder defined by episodes when breathing stops during sleep as a result of blockage of the airway
63
Parasomnia
one of a group of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep
64
Pineal Gland
endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin
65
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REM)
period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness and by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids
66
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD)
sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams
67
Sleep
state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness
68
Sleep Apnea
sleep disorder defined by episodes during which breathing stops during sleep
69
Sleep Debt
result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis
70
Sleep Rebound
sleep-deprived individuals will experience shorter sleep latencies during subsequent opportunities for sleep
71
Stage 1 Sleep
first stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep; the period during which a person drifts off to sleep
72
Stage 2 Sleep
second stage of sleep; the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles
73
Stage 3 Sleep
third stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves
74
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
area of the hypothalamus in which the body’s biological clock is located
75
Absolute Threshold
minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
76
Afterimage
continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus
77
Bottom-Up Processing
system in which perceptions are built from sensory input
78
Cocktail-Part Effect
the ability to attend to one of several speech streams while ignoring others, as when one is at a cocktail party.
79
Cone
specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color
80
Feature Detectives
the visual system has feature detectors for lines and angles of different orientations as well as for more complex stimuli, such as faces.
81
Fovea
small indentation in the retina that contains cones; central focus area of the retina
82
Frequency
number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period
83
Ganglion Cells
the only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation. Retinal ganglion cells receive input from retinal bipolar cells and amacrine cells. The axons of retinal ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
84
Intensity/Amplitude
the quantitative value of a stimulus or sensation.
85
Just Noticeable Difference
difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli
86
Opponent-Process Theory of Color Perception
color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green
87
Perception
way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced
88
Pitch
perception of a sound’s frequency
89
Prosopagnosia
“face blindness”
90
Pupil
small opening in the eye through which light passes
91
Retina
light-sensitive lining of the eye
92
Rod
specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions
93
Sensory Adaptation
not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time
94
Signal Detection Theory
change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state
95
Top-Down Processing
interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts
96
Transduction
conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential
97
Trichromatic Theory of Color Perception
color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones
98
Volley Principle
the principle that individual fibers in an auditory nerve respond to one or another stimulus in a rapid succession of rhythmic sound stimuli, whereas other fibers in the nerve respond to the second, third, or nth stimulus.
99
Alpha Waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
100
NREM-1
the transition into sleep, marked by slowed breathing and irregular brain waves; hypnagogic sensations/hallucinations, and myclonic jerks may occur
101
NREM-2
theta waves; sleep spindles; harder to awaken; conscious awareness of the external environment disappears; occupies 45-55% of total sleep in adults
102
NREM-3
sleep stage that lasts about 30 minutes and your brain emits large, slow delta waves, and you are hard to awaken.
103
Sleep Spindles
short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep
104
Temporal Lobe
Auditory cortex receptive language, understanding language, and has to do with hearing
105
Frontal Lobe
Has to do with controlling motor, behavior, expressive language, judgment, decision making.
106
Poriatal Lobe
Involved in the processing of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
107
Occipital Lobe
Location of the primary visual cortex.
108
Thalamus
The brain's central "relay station" situated just a top the brainstem. Nearly all the messages going into or out of the brain go through the thalamus.
109
Cerebral Cortex
The thin gray-matter covering of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex covers major portion of mental processing and thinking.
110
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression
111
Motor Cortex
A narrow vertical strip of cortex in the frontal lobes, lying just in front of the central fissure; controls movement
112
Spinal Cord
Part of the body's central nervous system. The pathway for messages sent by brain to body and from body to brain
113
Hypothalamus
A limbic structure that serves as the brain's blood testing laboratory, constantly monitoring the blood to determine the condition of the body. Also controls body temperature, appetite and metabolism.
114
Operant Conditioning
is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior
an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
115
Reinforcer
any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows
116
Positive Reinforcer
are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.
117
Negative Reinforcer
involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
118
Primary Reinforcer
an innately (naturally) reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
119
Secondary (or conditioned) Reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
120
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer
121
Variable-Ratio Schedule
a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule
122
Fixed-Interval Schedule
the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.
123
Variable Interval Schedule
a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.
124
Punishment
an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows
125
Positive Punishment
sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
126
Negative Punishment
also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
127
B.F. Skinner
Designed the operant chamber (Skinner Box) and explained the principles of Operant Conditioning
128
Classical Conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
129
Ivan Pavlov
a Russian psychologist that developed classical conditioning theory of learning; conducted famous salivating dogs experiment to research classical conditioning
130
Unconditioned Response (UR)
the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
131
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response
132
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that does not trigger a response
133
Conditioned Response (CR)
the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
134
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
135
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
136
Spontaneous Recovery
after a rest period, the reappearance of a previously extinct conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented If the conditioned stimulus (CS) persists alone, the conditioned response becomes extinct again
137
Stimulus Generalization
occurs when an organism displays a conditioned response (CR) to a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus (CS)
138
Stimulus Discrimination
the leaned ability to distinguish between a conditioned (CS) stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
139
Associative Learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
140
Instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned -- genetically programmed behavior.
141
Acquisition
period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit
the conditioned response
142
Cognitive Map
mental picture of the layout of the environment
143
Latent Learning
learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it
144
Observational Learning
type of learning that occurs by watching others
145
Vicarious Punishment
process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior
146
Vicarious Reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
147
Learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
148
Mirror Neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's actions in response to another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
149
Antisocial Behavior
actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person
150
Prosocial Behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
