Midterm Review 1 Flashcards
Cognitive Economy
The tendency for our brains to use shortcuts to save energy
- Heuristics and biases
Representativeness Heuristic
Using what we already know as fact. Not right or wrong, just our tendency to think a certain way
Availability Heuristic
Using the first thing we think of as the truth. The first piece of information that is “available” to us.
Anchoring Bias
Using the first piece of information, or fact as an anchor for when we make a decision
Confirmation Bias
Our tendency to seek out information that confirms what we think to be true. Also to ignore or forget information that contradicts what we believe
Bandwagon Effect
Believing that something is true because a large portion of people believe it to be true.
Base-rate Neglect
“Jumping to conclusions” based on the information we are given
Top-down Processing
Imposing what we already know onto new information
Framing Effects
How information is portrayed affects how we perceive it’s value
Algorithms
A certain procedure or set of steps that help us accomplish tasks
Functional Fixedness
Being unable to see the functionality/ multi-purposefulness of an item. A cup can be used for more than a drinking glass.
Phonemes
The smallest unit of sound. Sh
Morphemes
The smallest unit of meaning
“happy” “s - adds plural” “ing - perceives when the action occurred”
Syntax
Rules of a language that helps us understand the intent of a passage
Sensitive Periods of Development
A period in time where learning is enhanced, but can still occur after the period ends
Critical Period of Development
A period in time that permits the development for a finite time. When a fetus is developing its visual cortex,, if a certain amount of development doesn’t occur within this time period, there is no way to further develop it, and there will be permanent damage.
Phonetic Decomposition
Learning and reading words by sounding out the letters and syllables
Whole-word Recognition
Occurs when an individual can recognize a word in it’s entirety, and doesn’t look at each individual letter to understand what the word is
Reading Automaticity - Stroop Effect
Where words are coloured. One list is regular words like rabbit, in the colour red. Another list is the word blue, but in the colour red.
Proves reading is automatic because when looking at the colour word list, people struggle to say the colour of the ink the word is written in, rather than saying the word that is written.
Psychometric Tests
Aptitude or Achievement tests
Aptitude: general ability to measure a skill or learn something in the future
Achievement: tests what knowledge you’ve already learned - like a midterm
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Standard IQ tests for adults
- Culture-fair IQ test - abstract reasoning measure that doesn’t depend on language, and is less influenced by culture.
Reliability
If a test is reliable, each time the test is taken, similar results should occur under the same conditions (test-retest)
A test should also produce the same results if different people are running the test (inter-rate reliability)
Validity
Criterion/Content validity - the test will measure what it aims to measure
Predictive validity - whether the test can forecast future outcomes
Confounding Variables
Variables that are hard to isolate from others. Like age and the amount of education you have received
Heritability Estimates
Using genetics to determine how much of our IQ is received through heritability, and how much is through lived experience
Normal Distribution
Average scores are in the middle of distribution, most people have average scores and some are outliers
Standard deviation is by 15 points
Flynn Effect
Finding that average IQ scores have been rising at a rate of approximately three points per decade
Post Hoc Fallacy
The theory that if something occurs in your childhood, it will affect something later on in life “vaccines cause autism”
Cohort Effects
Cohort is a group of people that grow up at the same time with the same kind of circumstances and culture
- Shapes social behaviour and aspects of cognition
Research Designs
Cross-sectional: test groups of people at different ages all at once. No testing for cohort effects
Longitudinal design: follows a group from one age to another - allows for change over time to be seen with no changes in cohort effects
Sequential design - study different age groups and follow them across time, combination of both designs
Assimilation
A type of learning that children experience. Imposing what they already know onto an object. Like calling a zebra a horse.
Accomodation
When children categorize objects into groups based on their previous knowledge. Lions would be big cats.
Piaget’s Stages
- Sensorimotor
- Lasts until 2 years old
- Develop through senses and motor skills
- No object permeance - Peroperational stage
- Ages 2-7
- Developing emotions
- Language development
- Not good at mental operations or manipulation
- Not good at conservation (knowing that objects retain their basic value even though they change shape”
- Egocentrism
- False-belief task (toy scenario)
- Theory of mind: other people’s minds can contain wrong information - Concrete Operations Stage
- 7-11 years old
- Pass Piaget’s conservation tasks, false belief task, and egocentrism has declined
- Deductive logic (finding out santa isn’t real) - Formal Operations Stage
- Adult like starting at around 12
- Mastered all tasks they struggled with
- Capable of logic and scientific thinking
Limitations of Piaget
- Ignored language ability and motor skills
- Use of leading questions
- Kids can be at different stages fro different abilities
- Not perfectly accurate
- Didn’t focus on culture or education for the development of cognitive abilities
Zone of Proximal Development
The time when kids can learn a new skills, and want to, but can’t quite master it on their own
- Training wheels on a bike
Scaffolding
When children can learn a skill, but have difficulty with it. Other aids can be put in place to help them learn it faster/better.
Temperment
The nature/emotional style of a person.
40% of North American infants are easy, 10% are difficult, 15% are difficult-to-warm-up
Attachment
Secure: infants are sad to see parents go, will adjust, and happy when they come back
Insecure-avoidant: don’t really get upset when leave, and don’t reach for when they come back
Insecure-anxious: become distressed when caregiver leaves, clingy
Disorganized: uncategorized, can change frequently
Erikson’s Stage Theory of Identity and Development
Dependent upon cognitive development and tied to interaction with other people’ throughout life
1. Infancy
Trust vs. Mistrust
Developing general security, optimism, and trust in others
- Toddlerhood
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Developing independence ad confident self-reliance - Early Childhood
Initiative vs. Guilt
Developing initiative in exploring and manipulating the environment - Middle Childhood
Industry vs. Inferiority
Enjoyment and mastery of the developmental tasks of the childhood - Adolescence
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Achievement of a stable and satisfying sense of role and direction - Young Adulthood
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Development of the ability to maintain intimate personal relationships - Adulthood
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Satisfaction of personal and familial needs with development of interest of others and the world - Aging
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Recognizing and adjusting to aging and the prospect of death with a sense of satisfaction about the future
Primary Appraisal
Deciding whether a situation is stressful or not
Secondary Appraisal
Figuring out if, and how you can cope with a situation
Problem Focused Coping
Typically used when the situation can be changed
If you lose a job, fix resume and apply for more
Emotion Focused Coping
Thinking about the positives to a scenario, used when you can’t fix the problem directly
Can include relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety
Proactive Coping
Using strategies that will allow you to avoid or decrease the stress of situations
Organizing, planning, getting exercise, sleeping
General Adaptation Syndrome
Stage 1: Alarm
- Physiological arousal and the perception of threat or risk
Stage 2: Resistance
- Begin dealing with the situation
- Involves secondary appraisal
- Problem solving strategies come into play
Stage 3: Exhaustion
- Physical (illness) or emotional (depressive symptoms)
Learned Helplessness
When people have a sense of control, they are less likely to exhibit signs of depression. When they are helpless, and have been in the situation before, they will give up and stop resisting.
