Midterm Review 1

Question 1

Cognitive Economy

Answer 1

The tendency for our brains to use shortcuts to save energy

- Heuristics and biases

Question 2

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 2

Using what we already know as fact. Not right or wrong, just our tendency to think a certain way

Question 3

Availability Heuristic

Answer 3

Using the first thing we think of as the truth. The first piece of information that is “available” to us.

Question 4

Anchoring Bias

Answer 4

Using the first piece of information, or fact as an anchor for when we make a decision

Question 5

Confirmation Bias

Answer 5

Our tendency to seek out information that confirms what we think to be true. Also to ignore or forget information that contradicts what we believe

Question 6

Bandwagon Effect

Answer 6

Believing that something is true because a large portion of people believe it to be true.

Question 7

Base-rate Neglect

Answer 7

“Jumping to conclusions” based on the information we are given

Question 8

Top-down Processing

Answer 8

Imposing what we already know onto new information

Question 9

Framing Effects

Answer 9

How information is portrayed affects how we perceive it’s value

Question 10

Algorithms

Answer 10

A certain procedure or set of steps that help us accomplish tasks

Question 11

Functional Fixedness

Answer 11

Being unable to see the functionality/ multi-purposefulness of an item. A cup can be used for more than a drinking glass.

Question 12

Phonemes

Answer 12

The smallest unit of sound. Sh

Question 13

Morphemes

Answer 13

The smallest unit of meaning

“happy” “s - adds plural” “ing - perceives when the action occurred”

Question 14

Syntax

Answer 14

Rules of a language that helps us understand the intent of a passage

Question 15

Sensitive Periods of Development

Answer 15

A period in time where learning is enhanced, but can still occur after the period ends

Question 16

Critical Period of Development

Answer 16

A period in time that permits the development for a finite time. When a fetus is developing its visual cortex,, if a certain amount of development doesn’t occur within this time period, there is no way to further develop it, and there will be permanent damage.

Question 17

Phonetic Decomposition

Answer 17

Learning and reading words by sounding out the letters and syllables

Question 18

Whole-word Recognition

Answer 18

Occurs when an individual can recognize a word in it’s entirety, and doesn’t look at each individual letter to understand what the word is

Question 19

Reading Automaticity - Stroop Effect

Answer 19

Where words are coloured. One list is regular words like rabbit, in the colour red. Another list is the word blue, but in the colour red.
Proves reading is automatic because when looking at the colour word list, people struggle to say the colour of the ink the word is written in, rather than saying the word that is written.

Question 20

Psychometric Tests

Answer 20

Aptitude or Achievement tests
Aptitude: general ability to measure a skill or learn something in the future
Achievement: tests what knowledge you’ve already learned - like a midterm
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Standard IQ tests for adults
- Culture-fair IQ test - abstract reasoning measure that doesn’t depend on language, and is less influenced by culture.

Question 21

Reliability

Answer 21

If a test is reliable, each time the test is taken, similar results should occur under the same conditions (test-retest)
A test should also produce the same results if different people are running the test (inter-rate reliability)

Question 22

Validity

Answer 22

Criterion/Content validity - the test will measure what it aims to measure
Predictive validity - whether the test can forecast future outcomes

Question 23

Confounding Variables

Answer 23

Variables that are hard to isolate from others. Like age and the amount of education you have received

Question 24

Heritability Estimates

Answer 24

Using genetics to determine how much of our IQ is received through heritability, and how much is through lived experience

Question 25

Normal Distribution

Answer 25

Average scores are in the middle of distribution, most people have average scores and some are outliers Standard deviation is by 15 points

Question 26

Flynn Effect

Answer 26

Finding that average IQ scores have been rising at a rate of approximately three points per decade

Question 27

Post Hoc Fallacy

Answer 27

The theory that if something occurs in your childhood, it will affect something later on in life "vaccines cause autism"

Question 28

Cohort Effects

Answer 28

Cohort is a group of people that grow up at the same time with the same kind of circumstances and culture - Shapes social behaviour and aspects of cognition

Question 29

Research Designs

Answer 29

Cross-sectional: test groups of people at different ages all at once. No testing for cohort effects Longitudinal design: follows a group from one age to another - allows for change over time to be seen with no changes in cohort effects Sequential design - study different age groups and follow them across time, combination of both designs

Question 30

Assimilation

Answer 30

A type of learning that children experience. Imposing what they already know onto an object. Like calling a zebra a horse.

Question 31

Accomodation

Answer 31

When children categorize objects into groups based on their previous knowledge. Lions would be big cats.

Question 32

Piaget's Stages

Answer 32

1. Sensorimotor - Lasts until 2 years old - Develop through senses and motor skills - No object permeance 2. Peroperational stage - Ages 2-7 - Developing emotions - Language development - Not good at mental operations or manipulation - Not good at conservation (knowing that objects retain their basic value even though they change shape" - Egocentrism - False-belief task (toy scenario) - Theory of mind: other people's minds can contain wrong information 3. Concrete Operations Stage - 7-11 years old - Pass Piaget's conservation tasks, false belief task, and egocentrism has declined - Deductive logic (finding out santa isn't real) 4. Formal Operations Stage - Adult like starting at around 12 - Mastered all tasks they struggled with - Capable of logic and scientific thinking

Question 33

Limitations of Piaget

Answer 33

- Ignored language ability and motor skills - Use of leading questions - Kids can be at different stages fro different abilities - Not perfectly accurate - Didn't focus on culture or education for the development of cognitive abilities

Question 34

Zone of Proximal Development

Answer 34

The time when kids can learn a new skills, and want to, but can't quite master it on their own - Training wheels on a bike

Question 35

Scaffolding

Answer 35

When children can learn a skill, but have difficulty with it. Other aids can be put in place to help them learn it faster/better.

Question 36

Temperment

Answer 36

The nature/emotional style of a person. 40% of North American infants are easy, 10% are difficult, 15% are difficult-to-warm-up

Question 37

Attachment

Answer 37

Secure: infants are sad to see parents go, will adjust, and happy when they come back Insecure-avoidant: don't really get upset when leave, and don't reach for when they come back Insecure-anxious: become distressed when caregiver leaves, clingy Disorganized: uncategorized, can change frequently

Question 38

Erikson's Stage Theory of Identity and Development

Answer 38

Dependent upon cognitive development and tied to interaction with other people' throughout life 1. Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Developing general security, optimism, and trust in others 2. Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Developing independence ad confident self-reliance 3. Early Childhood Initiative vs. Guilt Developing initiative in exploring and manipulating the environment 4. Middle Childhood Industry vs. Inferiority Enjoyment and mastery of the developmental tasks of the childhood 5. Adolescence Identity vs. Role Confusion Achievement of a stable and satisfying sense of role and direction 6. Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Development of the ability to maintain intimate personal relationships 7. Adulthood Generativity vs. Stagnation Satisfaction of personal and familial needs with development of interest of others and the world 8. Aging Ego Integrity vs. Despair Recognizing and adjusting to aging and the prospect of death with a sense of satisfaction about the future

Question 39

Primary Appraisal

Answer 39

Deciding whether a situation is stressful or not

Question 40

Secondary Appraisal

Answer 40

Figuring out if, and how you can cope with a situation

Question 41

Problem Focused Coping

Answer 41

Typically used when the situation can be changed | If you lose a job, fix resume and apply for more

Question 42

Emotion Focused Coping

Answer 42

Thinking about the positives to a scenario, used when you can't fix the problem directly Can include relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety

Question 43

Proactive Coping

Answer 43

Using strategies that will allow you to avoid or decrease the stress of situations Organizing, planning, getting exercise, sleeping

Question 44

General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 44

Stage 1: Alarm - Physiological arousal and the perception of threat or risk Stage 2: Resistance - Begin dealing with the situation - Involves secondary appraisal - Problem solving strategies come into play Stage 3: Exhaustion - Physical (illness) or emotional (depressive symptoms)

Question 45

Learned Helplessness

Answer 45

When people have a sense of control, they are less likely to exhibit signs of depression. When they are helpless, and have been in the situation before, they will give up and stop resisting.